Ānāpānasmṛti in the Yogalehrbuch: Its Structure and Visualization

Abstract

The Yogalehrbuch is said to have been established in Central Asia and to have a similar terminology to the Sarvāstivāda. However, the exact background of the relation is yet unknown. This paper discusses two points. First, I examine the structure of ānāpānasmṛti and how the meditative images relate to the descriptions of Abhidharmic texts. The results show that the Yogalehrbuch adopts the steps of the Sarvāstivāda but does not reflect a highly systematized doctrine. The second is a comparison of its unique meditative images (oil, abhiṣeka, the Buddhas of the past, and Maitreya) with two meditation manuals, the Secret Essentials and the Methods of Curing, and two early esoteric sūtras. The results show that the abhiṣeka in the Yogalehrbuch is close to the two meditation manuals, while it represents more the life of Śākyamuni, which is also found in esoteric Buddhism, rather than the healing of illness. However, the Methods of Curing refers to a dhāraṇī similar to those found in two esoteric sūtras. The two sūtras use abhiṣeka as the name of dhāraṇīs, not as meditative images. From the above, it is hypothesized that the Yogalehrbuch was established within a background in which elements of early esoteric Buddhism could be found but had not yet seen the development of dhāraṇīs.

1. Introduction

The Yogalehrbuch is the Sanskrit text that Dieter Schlingloff published together with a German translation in 1964, mainly based on a birch-bark manuscript (SHT 150) brought by the German Turfan expedition from Qizil in the Kuchā area.1 This text displays various Buddhist yoga practices and meditative images. Schlingloff ([1964] 2006, pp. 10, 30–33), on the basis of where the manuscript was discovered and its doctrinal and cosmological elements, has considered this text to be a Sarvāstivāda work. Inokuchi (1966) found that the manner in which its sections are structured and the 16 steps of the mindfulness of breathing (hereafter, ānāpānasmṛti) make it similar to the Damoduoluo chan jing (達磨多羅禪經, T. 618, Yogācārabhūmi of Dharmatrāta/YoBhDh), which is known to be a meditation manual reflecting Sarvāstivāda doctrine. Also, Schmithausen (1970, pp. 109–13, n. 257) and Enomoto (1984, p. 21) have observed, from a linguistic perspective, that the same wording is employed in the Udānavarga of the Mūlasarvāstivāda2 tradition. However, it remains unclear how the Abhidharmic explanation of yogic practice is specifically related to the meditative imagery of the Yogalehrbuch. Thus, it is necessary to confirm how the meditative images of ānāpānasmṛti in the Yogalehrbuch are linked to the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma.

Ānāpānasmṛti is a meditation practice that entails an awareness of one’s inhalation and exhalation (āna-apāna; āśvāsa-praśvāsa3), said to have been performed by the Buddha during the rainy season (vārṣika). In the Nikāyas, the Satipaṭṭhānasutta (MN 10) identifies ānāpānasmṛti as a component of the mindfulness of the body (kāya-satipaṭṭhāna), whereas the Ānāpānasatisutta (MN 118) establishes sixteen steps of ānāpānasmṛti, with four steps assigned to each of the four tetrads of mindfulness: the body, feeling, mind, and Dharma as follows.4

Body:	(1) long (dīgha)
	(2) short (rassa)
	(3) experiencing the whole body (sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedī)
	(4) calming bodily activity (passambhayaṃ kāyasaṃkhāram)
Feeling:	(5) experiencing joy (pītipaṭisaṃvedī)
	(6) ease (sukhapaṭisaṃvedī)
	(7) mental activity (cittasaṃkhārapaṭisaṃvedī)
	(8) calming mental activity (passambhayaṃ cittasaṃkhāram)
Mind:	(9) experiencing (cittapaṭisaṃvedī)
	(10) gladdening (abhippamodayaṃ cittam)
	(11) concentrating (samādahaṃ cittam)
	(12) liberating the mind (vimocayaṃ cittam)
Dharmas:	(13) contemplating impermanence (aniccānupassī)
	(14) detachment (virāgānupassī)
	(15) cessation (nirodhānupassī)
	(16) renunciation (paṭinissaggānupassī)

It is on the basis of these 16 steps that “meditation manuals”5 compiled from Indian sources in the 2nd–5th centuries CE, such as the Xiuxingdao di jing (修行道地經, T. 606, Yogācārabhūmi of Saṃgharakṣa/YoBhS), the Yogācārabhūmi of Dharmatrāta and the Zuochan sanmei jing (坐禪三昧經, T. 614, Chan Manual/ZCSJ), structure the process of their ānāpānasmṛti. The YoBhS, considered to be written by Saṃgharakṣa, living in the 2nd century CE, and translated into Chinese by Dharmarakṣa (竺法護) in 284 CE, presents the stages of a yoga practitioner (yogācāra). The YoBhDh, which is assumed to be authored by Buddhasena (Greene 2012, p. 49) and translated by the Gandhāran yoga practitioner, Buddhabhadra (仏駄跋陀羅), in the 5th century CE, displays the same meditative stages with the inclusion of Sarvāstivāda doctrine. The Chan Manual, which was compiled by Kumārajīva (鳩摩羅什) in the 5th century CE, collects various teachings of yogācāras and also highlights Mahāyāna teachings.6 These meditation manuals are generally known to have some teachings and yogic systems similar to those in the texts of the Sarvāstivāda and the Yogācāra.

In addition, the Apidamo da piposha lun (阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論. T. 1545, Mahāvibhāṣā/Vibhāṣā) of the Sarvāstivāda and the Śrāvakabhūmi (ŚrBh II) of the Yogācārabhūmi also introduce the sixteen steps. The Vibhāṣā, a collection of various theories of Sarvāstivādin scholars, includes some similar teachings to the meditation manuals and the Śrāvakabhūmi. The Śrāvakabhūmi, which is said to be the oldest Yogācāra treatise compiled in the 3rd century CE (Deleanu 2006, pp. 154–56), exhibits theories that are close to the meditation manuals, the Vibhāṣā, and the Dharmaskandha (Dietz 1984; Matsuda 1986; Apidamo fayun zu lun 法蘊足論, T. 1537), which is considered to be a work of the 1st century CE. Therefore, I will first investigate the structure of the 16 steps as described in the section on Ānāpānasmṛtibhāvanā in the Yogalehrbuch and consider whether the meditative images there are related to the theoretical explanations stated in other meditation manuals, the Vibhāṣā, and the Śrāvakabhūmi.

Second, I would like to consider the specific meditative images that appear in Ānāpānasmṛtibhāvanā, focusing on the representations of consecration, namely, sprinkling oil or water (灌頂, hereafter abhiṣeka), and of the seven Buddhas of the past and the future Buddha Maitreya. Concerning the representation of abhiṣeka, there has been a debate among scholars as to whether its portrayal in the Yogalehrbuch is connected to esoteric Buddhism.7 In Indian Buddhist texts, abhiṣeka symbolizes the enthronement of Gautama (Śākyamuni), as well as the initiation, completion of practice, protection rites performed by the master for his disciple, and the re-experience of Śākyamuni’s meditation and rites. By examining the symbolic meaning that appears in the Yogalehrbuch, I would like to consider if the text has any elements linked to the development of esoteric Buddhism.

Representing the seven Buddhas of the past and the future Buddha Maitreya together is itself said to be related to the formulations of early esoteric Buddhism. Although the encounter between the past Buddhas and Maitreya has already been described in the Āgamas and depicted in reliefs from the Kushan Period (1st–3rd centuries CE),8 Miyasaka (1970, pp. 124–25) suggests that devotional practices enacted towards them strongly influenced the sūtras which include spells (dhāraṇī) and mantras for protection (rakṣā), such as the Peacock sūtra (Mahāmāyūrī),9 whose stories are found in the Bhaiṣajyavastu of the Genben shuo yiqie youbu pinaiye (根本説一切有部毘奈耶, T. 1442, *Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya/MūlaSV). Skilling (1997, pp. 63–88) states that the Mūlasarvāstivāda transmitted spells of protection (rakṣā) against calamities and malignants, similar to the Theravādins’ protective spells (paritta). One of the texts that represent the recitation of rakṣās is the sūtra entitled the Āṭānāṭiya, whose fragments were found in the Kuchā area and have been edited by Hoernle. The Āṭānāṭiya describes the praises of the seven Buddhas of the past and is known as one of the sources of the Mahāmāyūrī.10 Skilling highlights that the Mūlasarvāstivādin rakṣā literature is related to the later compilation of the five-rakṣā (pañcarakṣā). Ōtsuka (2013b, pp. 6–8) regards the scriptures that developed from Mūlasarvāstivādin rakṣā literature as one of the elements that came to form early esoteric Buddhism.11

Aside from the Yogalehrbuch, we can find similar representations of abhiṣeka, the future Buddha Maitreya, and the seven Buddhas of the past in two other meditation manuals: the Chan miyao fa jing (禪秘要法經, T. 613, Secret Essentials/CMJ) and the Zhi chanbing miyao fa (治禪病秘要法, T. 614, Methods of Curing/ZCM).12 Therefore, in this paper, I will examine how these meditative images are presented in the Secret Essentials, the Methods of Curing, and two scriptures that are counted as part of early esoteric Buddhism. This will lead us to hypothesize how the Yogalehrbuch was connected to the development of early esoteric Buddhism.

2. Ānāpānasmṛti in the Yogalehurbuch

2.1. The Structure of Ānāpānasmṛti

The 16 steps are a method to become aware of sixteen different physical and mental movements that occur while breathing. Regarding these steps, the relevant texts can be classified into three groups. The first relates to the texts of the southern tradition, such as the Ānāpānasatisutta,13 in which the last four steps are (13) impermanence, (14) detachment, (15) cessation, and (16) renunciation. Moreover, some of the texts of this group, including the Shelifu apitan lun (舍利弗阿毘曇論, T. 1548, *Śāriputrābhidharma/ŚārA),14 the Jietuo dao lun (解脱道論, T. 1648, *Vimuttimagga/VimM),15 and the YoBhS,16 consider exhalation to precede inhalation (Abe 2023, pp. 322–24).

The second group is comprised of texts belonging to the Sarvāstivāda tradition alone, including the Saṃyuktāgama (SĀ) 803 and 810. In these scriptures, the last four steps are (13) impermanence (anitya), (14) abandonment (prahāna), (15) detachment (virāga), and (16) cessation (nirodha),17 and inhalation precedes exhalation. This group includes the Śrāvakabhūmi,18 the YoBhDh,19 and the Yogalehrbuch. Of these, the Śrāvakabhūmi’s description is in complete agreement with that given in the SĀ. The steps given in the Vibhāṣā were probably the same as those in the SĀ originally, but based on the Prajñaptiśāstra, the order of the first two has been reversed to (1) short and then (2) long. While the Chengshi lun (成実論, T. 1646, *Tattvasiddhi) also follows the SĀ, it does not agree that inhalation precedes exhalation.

The third group includes the Shisong lü (十誦律, T. 1435, *Sarvāstivāda-vinaya/SarvV), the Chan Manual, and the Da zhidu lun (大智度論, T. 1509, *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa/MahāP). The *Sarvāstivāda-vinaya is said to have been translated by Puṇyatara (弗若多羅), Dharmaruci (曇摩流支), and Kumārajīva (Sato 1980), and the Chan Manual and the MahāP are both translated or compiled by Kumārajīva. In this group of texts, inhalation and exhalation are placed at the beginning of the steps, and one step is added to the last four to make five. Therefore, the *Sarvāstivāda-vinaya has nineteen steps, with which the MahāP and the Chan Manual are entirely consistent. The Mohe sengqi lü (摩訶僧祇律, T. 1425, *Mahāsāṃghika-vinaya/MahāSV) is similar in that it adds two steps, inhalation, and exhalation, at the beginning; otherwise, it is the same as the second group.

Table 1. The 16 steps of the YL and other texts.

SĀ 803, 206a28–b11	YL, 118V1–128R3	SarvV 8a23–8b1 (SĀ Dīrghanakha, T. 99, 249c7–8)	MahāP 138a10–15/ ZCSJ 275b19–276a5
		若息入	一觀入息/入息
		若息出	二觀出息/出息
(1) 息長	dīrghatā (longness)	若長	三觀息長/息長 息短/息短
(2) 息短	hrasvatā (shortness)	若短
(3) 覺知一切身 a	sarvakāyapratisaṃvedanā (experiencing the whole body)	若息入遍身	四觀息遍身/念諸息遍身
(4) 身行息 b	prasrabdhakāyasaṃskāratā (calming bodily activity)	除身行	五除諸身行/除諸身行
(5) 覺知喜	prītisaṃvedanā (experiencing joy)	受喜	六受喜/受喜
(6) 覺知樂	sukhapratisaṃvedanā (experiencing ease)	受樂	七受樂/受樂
(7) 覺知心行 c	cittasaṃskārapratisaṃvedanā (experiencing mental activity)	受心行	八者受諸心行/受諸心行
(8) 覺知心行息	prasrabdhacittasaṃskāratā (calming mental activity)	除心行
(9) 覺知心	cittapratisaṃvedanā (experiencing the mind)	覺心
(10) 覺知心悦	cittābhipramodanā (gladdening the mind)	令心喜	九心作喜 d/心作喜
(11) 覺知心定	cittasamādhānatā (concentrating the mind)	令心攝	十心作攝/心作攝
(12) 覺知心解脱	cittavimocanatā (liberating the mind)	令心解脱	十一心作解脱/心作解脱
(13) 觀察無常	anityānudarśanā, anityānupaśyanā (contemplating impermanence)	觀無常 (anityānupaśyī 觀無常)	十二觀無常/觀無常
		觀變壞 (vyayānupaśyī 觀生滅)	十三觀散壞/觀出散
(14) 觀察斷	prahāṇānudarśanā, prahāṇānupaśyanā (contemplating abandonment)	觀離欲 (virāgānupaśyī 觀離欲)	十四觀離欲/觀離欲結
(15) 觀察無欲	virāgānudarśanā, virāgānupaśyanā (contemplating detachment)	觀滅盡 (nirodhānupaśyī 觀滅盡)	十五觀滅/觀盡
(16) 觀察滅	nirodhānudarśanā, nirodhānupaśyanā (contemplating cessation)	觀捨離 (pratiniḥsargānupaśyī viharati 觀捨)	十六觀棄捨/觀棄捨

a. SĀ 810, 208a25: 一切身行覺知. b. SĀ 803, 206b1: 覺知一切身行息. Removed覺知一切. Cf. SĀ 810, 208a27: 身行休息. c. SĀ 803, 206b4: 覺知身行. Corrected. Cf. SĀ 810, 208b2: 心行覺知. d. MahāP: 九無作喜. Corrected from ZCSJ.

lists notable examples from the second and third groups:20

Although the 16 steps of the Yogalehrbuch are the same as those of the SĀ and the Śrāvakabhūmi, Schlingloff highlights that it has anupaśyanā along with anudarśanā in steps (13)–(16), which he considers evidence of the Yogalehrbuch employing older terminology (Schlingloff [1964] 2006, p. 63), yet does not indicate whether the terms used are based on the Āgamas or on other older scriptures.

Regarding steps (13)–(16) of the MahāP and the Chan Manual in Table 1, the last five steps correspond to those of the *Sarvāstivāda-vinaya. The former two texts seem to have had some connection with the older Vinaya text of the Sarvāstivāda. Furthermore, the last five items of the *Sarvāstivāda-vinaya are identical in terminology to the Dīrghanakha of the SĀ (Hosoda 1989, p. 149)21, which does not contain an account of ānāpānasmṛti. This indicates that the ānāpānasmṛti meditation gradually expanded from the basics of inhalation, exhalation, long breaths, and short breaths. Apart from the sixteen steps, including the four tetrads of mindfulness, there was likely a manual that incorporated the older items that remained in the *Sarvāstivāda-vinaya. The MahāP and the Chan Manual, both compiled by Kumārajīva, may have been influenced by such forms.22 The Yogalehrbuch also uses the same term anu-√paś, so it can be inferred that it was written by people who were familiar with the older formulations. Moreover, this would not preclude the possibility that the Yogalehrbuch not only adopted older phrases still found in the Nikāyas but was also influenced by the traditions associated with the translations of Kumārajīva counted in the third group above.

2.2. The Sixteen Steps and Their Visualizations

The section of Ānāpānasmṛtibhāvanā in the Yogalehrbuch comprises the following three parts: the present practice, which has 16 steps; the future practice; and the past practice. These three parts may be related to the SĀ 815, which states that the Buddha was pleased to see the current bhikṣus practicing ānāpānasmṛti, just as the past and future Buddhas are in their time.23

To examine the meditative images of the 16 steps in the Yogalehrbuch, I mainly refer to the following four texts associated with the Sarvāstivāda tradition: the Chan Manual (275b19–276a5), the *Tattvasiddhi (355c15–356a14), the Śrāvakabhūmi (ṠrBh II, pp. 94–107), and the Vibhāṣā (136a17–136c11).24 Note that I use Schlingloff’s revised edition with no changes to the notation.25

2.2.1. Present Practice

• (1) Longness and (2) shortness

Concerning “longness” and “shortness”, the *Tattvasiddhi states that one’s breath is short when the mind is rough and distracted, while it is long when the mind is careful and not fatigued.26 On the other hand, the Śrāvakabhūmi simply teaches us to contemplate long and short breaths as they are. The Vibhāṣā, based on the Prajñaptiśāstra, states that the practitioner should first contemplate short breaths and then long breaths. This is because when the practitioner first enters into meditation, the breath is short, and when the meditation becomes stable, the breath becomes long.27 The former is considered to be in the first dhyāna, while the latter is in the second dhyāna.28 The Yogalehrbuch does not make a clear distinction between longness and shortness, explaining them as follows:

[The practitioner sees the breath] go horizontally to the Great Wheel Wall [around the earth] +++. [This is] when [practicing] longness. In the same way, [he sees the breath] turn and enter [his] body. [This is] when [practicing] shortness.29

The distinct point here is on practicing “longness”, in which the practitioner observes his breath reaching the mountain range at the outermost limit of the horizontal plain of the cosmos, named “Great Wheel Wall” (mahācakravāḍa). A similar expression is found in the Secret Essentials, where it explains that the wind of the breath gradually becomes vaster and longer, permeating the trichiliocosm, reaching its peak at the top and the edges of the Vajra Wheel at the bottom.30 However, the Abhidharmakośa criticizes the teaching of the breath going down to the Wind Wheel and up to the Vairambha Wind.31

Another passage concerning “shortness” in the Yogalehrbuch describes the practitioner when, in the third dhyāna, seeing Vajra Seats, upon which the Buddhas are seated, and a palace with pillars made of beryl.32 This passage does not coincide with the explanation in the Vibhāṣā, which links these two steps with the first and second dhyānas.

• (3) Experiencing the whole body

In this step, the Chan Manual indicates that the practitioner should contemplate his breath flowing in and out through all the pores and permeating the body.33 A similar depiction is found in the Śrāvakabhūmi,34 and the Vibhāṣā links this contemplation to the third dhyāna.35 The Yogalehrbuch states that the body is filled with wind and that oil (taila) is observed entering the practitioner himself (ātman):

+++ [The practitioner] sees [his own] body filled with winds, and winds entering through all the channels +++ … +++ [He also sees] himself with the oil entering through all channels (and) immersed in an ocean of oil. This is when experiencing the whole body.36

The Yogalehrbuch describes the breath permeating the body in the form of oil. Here, the oil can be seen as something that makes the inside of the body smooth and as a representation of the joy of meditating. As described later, in the Methods of Curing, it is stated that one can obtain physical ease through visualizing the penetration of oil, and in the Secret Essentials, through ambrosia and celestial medicine. Although not using oil, the metaphor of water to describe the joy of meditation is found in the Amozhou jing (阿摩晝經) in the Dīrghāgama.37 This sūtra describes the body being filled with joy in the first, second, and third dhyānas using the metaphors of soap powder being soaked in water and hardening, spring water filling a lake, and lotus flowers absorbing water.

• (4) Calming bodily activity

In the Theravāda *Vimuttimagga, “bodily activity” refers to physical acts, such as bending forward and backward, while “calming” refers to the easing of coarse physical movements when one’s meditation reaches the fourth dhyāna.38 However, according to the YoBhS and the Chan Manual, “bodily activity” refers to the body being fatigued and sleepy, while “calming” means making the body lighter.39 Likewise, the Śrāvakabhūmi considers “calming” as a reference to making rough and unpleasant breathing softer and easier.40 The Vibhāṣā, like the *Vimuttimagga, refers to this stage of meditation as the fourth dhyāna, but it also indicates that in the fourth dhyāna, the breath thoroughly stops,41 which seems to differ from descriptions in the YoBhS, the Chan Manual and the Śrāvakabhūmi. The Yogalehrbuch states:

Then [he sees himself] immersed in an ocean of oil, hanging in the air, and being sprinkled with oil from above. [This is] when calming bodily activity.42

In light of the explanation of the Śrāvakabhūmi, the phrase “immersed in an ocean of oil” may describe the heaviness of one’s breath and indulgence in meditation, while “hanging in the air” refers to the lightness of one’s breathing. It is challenging to link this passage to the cessation of breath as presented in the Vibhāṣā. However, given that this is the final stage of mindfulness of the body, the portrayal of being drawn out of the ocean and sprinkled (√sic) with oil from above suggests the attainment of a specific meditation.

• (5) Experiencing joy and (6) experiencing ease

Steps (5)–(9) are fragmentary and no longer fully intelligible in the Yogalehrbuch, and we are therefore limited to considering the explanations given in Abhidharmic texts. From here on, the mindfulness of feeling is explained. Most of the texts explain “joy” (prīti) as the joyful feelings gained in the first and second dhyānas, while “ease” (sukha) refers to the pleasant feelings gained up to the third dhyāna.43

• (7) Experiencing mental activity and (8) calming mental activity

The Śrāvakabhūmi and the Vibhāṣā describe “mental activity” as the feeling of greed (tṛṣṇā) accompanied by ideation (saṃjñā) and intention (cetanā) and “calming” as the removal of the feeling of greed.44

• (9) Experiencing the mind

This is where the explanation of the mindfulness of the mind begins. The Śrāvakabhūmi states that one who has attained the first to third dhyānas observes the twenty minds characterized by greed and non-greed.45 The Vibhāṣā does not provide many explanations.

• (10) Gladdening the mind

According to the *Vimuttimagga and the Visuddhimagga, this step involves making one’s mind glad in the first and second dhyānas. The Chan Manual and the *Tattvasiddhi do not mention the specific stages of dhyāna and rather describe how one should make an effort to make the mind joyful when it is discontented and depressed. The Śrāvakabhūmi also explains that when the practitioner has a lazy and dormant (styānamiddha) mind, he makes it brightened, guided, encouraged, and joyful.46 The Yogalehrbuch describes the gladness of the mind with the following visual imagery:

Further, if [the practitioner] is guided by inhalation and exhalation, the world and [his] body appear crystalline.47 Then, from his head, a bejeweled tree pervades the endless world-realms and remains. The Buddhas preaching the Dharma are seen on the leafy branches of that tree. And the roots of the tree, with a beryl sheen and hollow within +++ the yogācāra sees [them] rest on the circle of gold through the soles of his feet. Further, when inhaling, [he sees] strips of blue light, upon which are mounted the aforementioned signs of mindfulness. And [he sees] a boy descending to the golden wheel through the beryl roots, etc. When exhaling, [he sees] strips of white light, upon which are mounted the signs of mindfulness.48

This passage indicates that the practitioner should delight his mind by visualizing pleasing scenes, such as trees made of jewels on which the Buddhas preach. Furthermore, the boy’s movements seem to depict the practitioner’s gladness of mind. What the strips represent is unclear, but I assume that it corresponds to the strips usually depicted around the Buddha or Bodhisattva in the thangka paintings. This could also be an expression of breathing with gladness.

• (11) Concentrating the mind

Regarding this step, the Chan Manual states that when the mind is unstable, the practitioner should firmly restrain it. The *Tattvasiddhi and the Śrāvakabhūmi state that, in contrast to the previous step, one who has an excited (abhisaṃpra-√grah) mind must settle it.49 The Yogalehrbuch says the following:

[First,] an inner ocean arises. Second, an outer [ocean arises]. When he breathes in, [he sees] the mind in the form of a boy, embraced by the breath and sinking into the inner ocean. When he breathes out, [he sees] the mind embraced by the breath, and [sinking] in the same way into the outer ocean. [This is] when concentrating the mind.50

Here, the practitioner’s mind is shown sinking into the ocean of samādhi in the form of a boy. This is different from the previous boy’s up-and-down movement and may represent a settled mind.

• (12) Liberating the mind

While the Visuddhimagga describes “liberating” as eliminating the five hindrances, inquiry-investigation, joy, and pain-ease, in the first to the fourth dhyānas respectively,51 the Chan Manual simply considers it to be liberation from the defilements of the mind and the *Tattvasiddhi explains it as escaping from depression and excitement.52 The Śrāvakabhūmi demonstrates that the mind is purified by eliminating the emergence of various hindrances (nivaraṇa).53 The Yogalehrbuch states this as follows:

Then in his heart a lotus pond [appears], +++ and [he] sees a boy sunk there and engaged in the pleasure of samādhi. And the man covered with stars of charcoal light, in that very lotus pond, +++ grabs and lifts up the boy. Then the lotus pond catches fire.54

And later, he sees [himself] sunk into the inner ocean and immersed in the pleasure of samādhi. Thousands of shooting stars fall into the inner ocean, ignite, burn, and burn up. The same in the outer ocean. … Then the Bhagavat, surrounded by hundreds [of people], with a pile of pearls and endowed with mindfulness, appears and ties a white cloth [to him] … .55

In this stage, the mind is represented as having burst into flames,56 after which the boy—presumably the practitioner himself—is grabbed, lifted, and saved. The Buddha then appears and ties a white cloth or turban to the practitioner’s head. This expression appears to indicate the achievement of a particular level of practice, as this step is the final stage of the mindfulness of the mind.

• (13)–(16) Contemplating impermanence, abandonment, detachment, and cessation

Regarding the following four steps, the Śrāvakabhūmi presents step (13) as the elimination of latent dispositions (anuśaya) and steps (14)–(16) as the elimination of the defilements to be severed in the path of vision (darśanamārga), the path of cultivation (bhāvanāmārga), and all stages by practicing śamatha-vipaśyanā.57 According to Vasumitra’s theory in the Vibhāṣā, these four steps represent (13) the impermanence of the breathing airflow, (14) the abandonment of eight of the nine fetters (結, *saṃyojana), (15) the detachment of the fetter of sensual desire, and (16) the cessation of all fetters.58 In contrast to the above systematic explanation of defilements, the Yogalehrbuch seems to suggest a general view of impermanence and liberation from all attachments. Concerning step (13), it states that the practitioner sees his body and the world decaying as follows:

[He] sees his body weakened, tired and aged. With the inhalations and exhalations +++ [he sees] the world decaying. [This is] when contemplating impermanence.59

Step (14) depicts the fire of breath burning the world:

[He] sees the inhalation and the exhalation burning, and in the same way, +++ [he sees] the whole world burning. [This is] when contemplating abandonment.60

In step (15), the world is burned by those flames:

By these very flames, the whole world boils, and is burned up like a lump of foam. [This is] when contemplating detachment.61

Finally, in step (16), the practitioner has water sprinkled (pari-√sic) on him:

The yogācāra’s body +++ [he] sees [the fire] having ceased as if sprinkled with cool water. [This is] when contemplating cessation.62

These four steps describe how the practitioner’s body and the world deteriorate, are burned, combusted, and extinguished. In the Secret Essentials, the section on the fire element describes a practitioner seeing himself burned and the eighty-eight fetters being extinguished. The following section on abhiṣeka states that he has water poured onto him by the Buddha and that the water enters his body from the top of his head, which describes the attainment of the stage entering the stream of enlightenment (*srota-āpanna).63 The expressions regarding fire and water in both texts represent the destruction of desire and the completion of a certain stage of practice.

Finally, the Yogalehrbuch states that when the practitioner arises from meditation, the Buddha appears seated on a lion’s throne:

When arising [from meditation], a palace adorned with pearls arises. … Then the Bhagavat ties a cloth to [the practitioner’s] head and states, “Thus should ānāpānasmṛti be performed, and one who has practiced is well fulfilled.”… This is the present practice of ānāpānasmṛti.64

As above, the Buddha ties a silk cloth or turban (paṭṭa) to the practitioner’s head, which refers not simply to the perfection of meditation but to the attainment of an enlightened status. In Buddhist literature, “tying a turban” symbolizes the succession of the Dharma prince. In the 51st chapter of the Gaṇḍavyūhasūtra, the imagery of “tying the turban of consecration” (avabaddho ‘bhiṣekapaṭṭaḥ) symbolizes Maitreya attaining the stage of being tied to saṃsāra only for one birth (ekajātipratibaddha).65 Moreover, in one Vajrayāna text, the Tattvasaṃgraha, at the birth ritual of Vajrasattva, Mahāvairocana pours water onto Vajrasattva, endows him with a jeweled crown and turban, and enthrones him as a universal ruler (cakravartin)66

2.2.2. Future Practice

Next, the Yogalehrbuch describes the practice of the future. The practitioner sees Maitreya surrounded by countless śrāvakas performing ānāpānasmṛti as follows:

As for the future practice, the yogācāra sees the sunken earth adorned with pearls, above which are vast, shining jewels on the sun disk, on which he sees himself riding. And the enlightened holy Maitreya, surrounded by countless thousands of śrāvakas [appears], and some of these bhikṣus are seen practicing “longness” and some are seen practicing “contemplating cessation”. This is when [practicing] the future practice.67

2.2.3. Past Practice

Lastly, the paragraph concerning the past practice describes the Buddhas of the past appearing as follows:

As for the past practice, in reverse order, he sees the Buddhas from Kāśyapa to Vipaśyin with their attendants. And he sees himself cultivating virtuous deeds. Then the Bhagavats appear one after another.68

These paragraphs do not teach the 16 steps but describe how the practitioner visualizes the Buddhas surrounded by bhikṣus practicing ānāpānasmṛti in the future and the past. As of now, I have not been able to find a similar explanation in other texts about the practice of ānāpānasmṛti in the future and the past, but as mentioned above, it seems to be linked to the SĀ 815, in which the Buddha rejoices when he sees the monks’ practice of breathing in the present, future, and past.

2.2.4. The Image of Oil and Abhiṣeka

All 16 steps in the Yogalehrbuch have now been examined, and no clear interpretations have been found that link to the four dhyānas or other meditative stages depicted in the Abhidharmic texts. However, we can find characteristic meditative images that can be associated with Abhidharmic theories. For example, (3) the image of oil spreading throughout the practitioner’s body represents “experiencing the whole body”; (4) the image of the practitioner being immersed in an ocean of oil, hanging in the air, and having oil sprinkled on him represents the “calming bodily activity”, which is the final stage of the mindfulness of the body; (11) the image of a boy falling into the ocean depicts “concentrating the mind”; (12) the scene where the boy is lifted up and has a cloth tied to him depicts “liberating the mind”, which is the final stage of mindfulness of mind; (15) the burning of the body and the world represents “detachment”; and (16) water being sprinkled on the head and a cloth tied to it as a crown depicts the “cessation” of all defilements, which is the final stage of the mindfulness of Dharma.

In these images, the representation of oil symbolizes joy and indulgence in the pleasures of meditation. On the other hand, the phrase of pouring oil or water seems to be associated with the attainment of a certain level of meditation, as shown in steps (4) and (16), and with the expression of tying a cloth, as shown in steps (12) and (16), all of which are the final stages of the four tetrads of mindfulness. Another example from the section of dhātuprayoga69 is provided as follows:

Immediately after that, he gives pleasure to his body through abhiṣeka. Then he binds his mind to the place between the eyebrows. From there, a stream [of rays] comes out, breaking through the disk of earth, illuminating the hells and the hungry ghosts, breaking through the golden wheel,70 illuminating the disks of water and wind, illuminating the space realm, returning, entering [the body] through the navel, shooting out of the head, illuminating uninterruptedly as far as the deities of Aghaniṣṭha heaven, appreciating the essence of the fourth dhāyna, and enters [the body] again through the head.71

This passage not only expresses pleasure in meditation but also depicts the accomplishment of practice and the shaking of the earth.72 It reminds us of the Buddha’s attainment of enlightenment.

As summarized by Huard (2022, p. 288), Seyfort Ruegg (1967, p. 162) regards abhiṣeka in meditation manuals as an indication of the accomplishment of meditation, while Bretfeld (2003, pp. 175–76) regards it as the act of a saintly person receiving the Dharma transmission. Yamabe (2010) states that the abhiṣeka is partly inspired by the scene of bathing the Buddha right after his birth and highlights its similarity to consecration in Tantric texts. Huard (2022, pp. 290–91), referring to the Tocharian texts, points out that abhiṣeka describes succession to the throne and something that enriches the world, as well as a supernatural transformation through meditation.

Based on the above aspects, I believe that the images of abhiṣeka in the Yogalehrbuch are linked to some of the episodes in the stories of Śākyamuni’s life. Davidson (2010, pp. 191–92) points out that although the Yogalehrbuch includes depictions of the diadem and internalizations of mythological episodes from the life of the Buddha, it is not connected to the rituals performed in India and does not involve the initiation in which a master guides a disciple. Admittedly, the meditation of the Yogalehrbuch is not designed as an initiatory part of the ritual, but it does not seem entirely unrelated to esoteric visualization.

The esoteric scripture, *Mahāvairocanasūtra (Dapiluzhena chengfo shenbian jiachi jing, 大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經, T. 848), in its second chapter, the Lay-out of the Maṇḍala (Ru mantuluo juyuan zhenyan pin, 入漫荼羅具縁眞言品), teaches that the master leads the disciple to the abhiṣeka ritual by constructing a maṇḍala depicting various Buddhas and deities. In the eleventh chapter, Secret Maṇḍala (Ru mimi mantuluo pin, 入祕密漫荼羅品), the disciple visualizes a maṇḍala on his own body by placing the wheel of great vajra, water, fire, and space from the bottom to the head and imagines on each of his body parts the seed letter of the mantra which indicate that the Buddha has forced the demons to surrender.73 This means that the disciple projects the Buddha’s enlightenment onto himself. And the Tattvasaṃgraha, before expounding the process of actual abhiṣeka rituals, instructs the disciple to enter meditation and identify himself with the ascetic Gautama and then to visualize receiving abhiṣeka and the name of Vajrasattva by all tathāgatas. Although it is a little out of place, in the abhiṣeka ritual performed in the Shingon school in Japan, the teachers recite the prose section of a Chinese translation of the Tattvasaṃgraha, namely the Lüechu niansong jing (略出念誦經, T. 866) when the master (阿闍梨, *ācārya) drips water on his/her direct disciple. The prose praises four stages in the Buddha’s life—namely descending from Tuṣita heaven, being born, attaining Buddhahood, and preaching the Dharma.74 In this ritual, abhiṣeka represents the disciple’s succession to the tathāgata’s lineage, a rebirth as one who has received the tathāgata’s seed, the subduing of demons and the manifestation of supernatural power through meditation, and the bestowal of the position of a Dharma preacher. It is evident that the Yogalehrbuch lacks any elements of the esoteric ritual. Nevertheless, it is difficult to dismiss the possibility that the visualizations described therein had some connection to the development of esoteric practice.

3. The Seven Buddhas of the Past, Maitreya, the Expression of Oil, and Abhiṣeka

This section examines the expressions of the seven Buddhas of the past, Maitreya, oil, and abhiṣeka, as presented in other texts. Notably, there are relatively few texts in which the seven Buddhas of the past (Vipaśyin, Śikhin, Viśvabhū, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kāśyapa, and Śākyamuni) and the future Buddha Maitreya are mentioned together. The YoBhS, the YoBhDh, and the Chan Manual contain no indication of either Maitreya or the seven Buddhas of the past. However, the Siwei lueyao fa (思惟略要法, T. 617) and the Wumen chanjing yaoyong fa (五門禪經要用法, T. 619) mention Maitreya, but not the seven Buddhas. The Mile da chengfo jing (彌勒大成佛經, T. 456, MDCJ) includes offerings to the seven Buddhas and Maitreya,75 as well as the episode of Kāśyapa’s reception of abhiṣeka.76 However, as the text does not directly elucidate this specific meditation, it is not included in this section. As only the Yogalehrbuch links these explanations to ānāpānasmṛti, I would like to broadly investigate other meditation and visualization methods as well.

The depictions of the Buddhas of the past and Maitreya exhibit strong ties to the northwestern regions of South Asia as well as Central Asia. The Peshawar Museum in Pakistan houses an example of a mural depicting the seven Buddhas and Maitreya together (Inv. Nr. PM-3091; alt: 2108), while several Maitreya statues juxtaposed with the Buddhas of the past have been found in the northwestern regions of South Asia.77 Miyaji (1992, pp. 453–57) states that the illustrations of practitioners in the Qizil Caves are linked to the Maitreya cult.78 According to Howard and Vignato (2015, p. 123), in Qizil Cave 114, a mural remains that depicts a flame-shouldered Śākyamuni Buddha surrounded by the seven Buddhas of the past. It can, therefore, be posited that belief in the future Buddha and the seven Buddhas of the past was once a prominent feature of this region.

3.1. The Secret Essentials

Let us first examine the Secret Essentials, reportedly translated or compiled by Kumārajīva or Dharmamitra (曇摩蜜多) in 441 CE. According to Greene (2012, pp. 120–27), this text was brought to China from India or Central Asia and copied during the close exchange between the western regions and southern China around the 5th century CE. He also speculates that the Secret Essentials and the Methods of Curing were originally a single text, with the Methods for Curing following directly after the Secret Essentials (Greene 2012, p. 110).

The Secret Essentials displays distinctive methods of meditation, such as the contemplations of impurity, white bones, the four elements (四大, *catur-mahābhūta, i.e., earth, water, fire, and wind), breath counting, and friendliness, as well as the contemplation of vajra and abhiṣeka. In the section on the contemplation of white bones, the text describes the arhat Piṇḍola rejoicing upon seeing a vision of the seven Buddhas of the past manifesting eighteen miraculous transformations, after which the Buddha appears and says that the practitioner who fixes his mind on white bones will be reborn in Tuṣita heaven and meet Maitreya.79 The succeeding paragraph teaches the emergence of the Buddha and Buddhas of the past as follows:

[The practitioner] further sees the emanation of Śākyamuni Buddha. After seeing the emanation of Śākyamuni Buddha, he then also sees the emanations of the six Buddhas of the past. … Each of the Buddhas announces his name. The first Buddha says: I am Vipaśyin. The second Buddha says: I am Śikhin. … Then each of the seven Buddhas radiates light from the white tuft of hair between his eyebrows, one of the marks of a great man.80 (Greene 2021b, pp. 165–66)

The next part, concerning the contemplation of the four elements, first says that “one should take milk products (酥) and restorative medicines (補藥)”, going on to state that one should visualize Śakra and other gods pouring heavenly medicine (天藥) on one’s head:

Then he should settle his mind and imagine opening the crown of his head. Next he should invite Śakra, Brahmā, and the World Protectors, and have them hold in their hands golden vases filled with heavenly medicine. Indra, lord of the gods, is on the left, while the World Protectors are on the right. They pour the heavenly medicine into the crown of his head, and his entire body is filled with it.81 (Greene 2021b, p. 154)

While this visualization is reminiscent of the story of Śākyamuni’s birth, its purpose is to remove the practitioner’s defilements and frightening visions, such as poisonous dragons in his body, raging and flying out whilst breathing fire, or elephants and yakṣas fighting and spewing poison. The heavenly medicine may include milk products such as ghee and some types of oil that are generally considered medicines for treating illnesses.82

In the part concerning the contemplation of the Buddha’s abhiṣeka, it is explained as follows:

The pitcher is filled with ambrosia-like water. The water is … soft and smooth, and the Buddha pours it on the practitioner’s head. It fills the interior of his body, and he sees the eighty families of worms gradually shrivel up wherever the water flows within his body. Once the worms have shriveled, he feels relaxed in body and happy in mind. He must then think: “The Tathāgatha, the compassionate father, has consecrated my head with this water of the Dharma, which is ambrosia of the most excellent flavor.”83 (Greene 2021b, pp. 179–80)

While there are many worms causing illness or confusion, they now shrink, and the body and mind become at ease due to the pouring of ambrosia (*amṛta, 甘露). At the end of this text, the meditation as a whole is called the “medicine of the ambrosia abhiṣeka” (甘露灌頂藥), which should be kept secret and not disseminated among others.84 Accordingly, this text includes the images of Maitreya and the seven Buddhas of the past, as well as oil and abhiṣeka. However, it makes more explicit reference to the healing and removal of desires and sins through the pouring of oil or ambrosia than is found in the Yogalehrbuch.

3.2. The Methods of Curing

The Methods of Curing, reportedly translated by Juqu Jingsheng (沮渠京聲) in 454 CE, provides more detailed instructions on how to cure illnesses caused by greed, anger, and the violation of moral principles, as well as illnesses caused by diarrhea, headaches, fear, and insects that arise from the four elements of the physical body.

The passage concerning the overabundance of the water element states that if a practitioner gets diarrhea, he should first take worldly medicine and then abstain from the five pungent roots, alcohol, and meat. Furthermore, if the practitioner cultivates counting his breaths, visualizes the deified form of venerable persons, and chants the names of various gods, he encounters Maitreya.85

Moreover, when the practitioner develops fear and confusion caused by the contemplation of the earth element, he should visualize various jewels and lights, repent of his sins, and perform breath-counting meditation. Then, images of Śākyamuni Buddha and the seven Buddhas of the past appear in sequence in a maṇi mirror, and water flows from between the eyebrows of each of the seven Buddhas, which purifies the practitioner’s body.86 Upon entering the contemplation of the wind element, the practitioner sees the Buddha expounding the spell (dhāraṇī, 陀羅尼), which cures all of the practitioners’ illnesses.87 It is indicated that if a beginner experiences distress caused by meditation practice, he should recite this spell and the names of the seven Buddhas of the past and Maitreya. This dhāraṇī is not found in the two esoteric sūtras discussed below, but a completely identical one is found in another esoteric text (T. 1343).88 Although the direct relation to this text is unclear, it can be seen that there was a background in which meditation manuals and esoteric texts shared the same spells.

Concerning the abhiṣeka of oil or medicine, the Methods of Curing describes that if the practitioner contracts an illness of the four elements, he should then visualize opening up the top of his head with a vajra sword bestowed by Brahmā. Then, he sees a lotus flower with a stalk with nine nodes raised from the bottle, and a boy emerges from the first node of the flower and pours ghee onto the practitioner. Following this, variously colored boys emerge in sequence from the second node, and they each pour medicine onto the practitioner. Afterward, a boy pours ambrosia onto the practitioner, and Brahmā appears and preaches friendliness and compassion, after which all illnesses are overcome. This visualization is called the “Brahmā king abhiṣeka, the method of pouring ghee” (梵王灌頂擁酥灌法).

At the end of this scripture, two Bodhisattvas—Medicine King (藥王) and Medicine Lord (藥上)—appear. The practitioner should contemplate them pouring water over his head from golden vases,89 and the two Bodhisattvas preach Mahāyāna teachings (摩訶衍法) and the magical methods for healing (醫方呪術). He then sees five hundred arhats giving him abhiṣeka as follows:

Some of the arhats will instruct the practitioner to [imagine] boring a hole in the top of his head and gradually emptying out the inside. When his entire body is empty, [the arhats] will pour him with oil while the god Brahmā pours golden medicine into his body until it is full.90 (Greene 2021b, p. 299)

As seen above, the Methods of Curing describes the abhiṣeka of water, oil, and heavenly medicines. These expressions are more strongly intended to heal physical illnesses compared with the Secret Essentials and the Yogalehrbuch. It is notable that, in addition to these visualizations, the recitation of dhāraṇī is presented as a means of healing illness.91

Additionally, two Bodhisattvas of Medicine appear and give the teachings of Mahāyāna. This scripture, therefore, can be said to be related to the Visualization of Bhaiṣajya, which we will examine next. Considering that the Yogalehrbuch does not describe the two Bodhisattvas of Medicine nor preach mantras or spells, it seems likely that among those who also believed in Maitreya and the seven Buddhas and preached abhiṣeka, there was a different or developed type of group adopting dhāraṇīs.

3.3. The Visualization of Bhaiṣajya

Now, let us examine the sūtra entitled the Guan Yaowang Yaoshang erpusa jing (觀藥王藥上二菩薩經, T. 1161, Visualization of Bhaiṣajya/GYYJ), which was translated by Kālayaśas (畺良耶舎) in the Yuanjia era (元嘉, 424–453 CE). It is considered one of the six visualization sūtras of Mahāyāna Buddhism; however, it is also counted among early esoteric Buddhist literature.

It begins with the Buddha entering into the state of samādhi and emitting lights from his eyes onto the heads of two Bodhisattvas Medicine King (藥王) and Medicine Lord (藥上). Then, the Buddha preaches the “abhiṣeka of ambrosia medicine” (甘露妙藥灌頂), which comprises the following five acts: observing the precepts, performing virtuous deeds, keeping the mind and body at peace, not being surprised at or doubting the Mahāyāna sūtras, and believing in the Buddha’s immortality. And the two Bodhisattvas of Medicine recite the mantra called “abhiṣeka dhāraṇī for overcoming the ocean of defilements” (降煩惱海灌頂陀羅尼) and say that those who hold this mantra can purify all kinds of sins.

Although, as mentioned above, the Secret Essentials also describes the meditation it teaches as the “medicine of the ambrosia abhiṣeka” (甘露灌頂藥), this sūtra does not teach the methods of contemplation but rather stresses the merit of hearing and reciting the two Bodhisattva’s names and the dhāraṇīs.

Next, the Buddha tells a monk named Maitreya Ajita that the Medicine King will attain Buddhahood in the future.92 The Bodhisattva then appears in front of the monks as follows:

At that time, the Bodhisattva Medicine King emitted a hundred billion jewels lights from each of his pores, illuminating the practitioners. … [The Bodhisattva] then expounded the “ambrosia medicine of removing sins” (除罪甘露妙藥). Soon after taking this medicine, they all immediately attained the gate of five hundred billion revolving dhāraṇīs.93

Then, when the Medicine Lord preaches the names of the past Buddhas, the monks listening to them see the seven Buddhas of the past while in meditation:

Then the Bodhisattva Medicine Lord finished expounding the names of the fifty-three past Buddhas and abided in peace. Thus, the practitioners were then able to see the seven Buddhas of the past, [from] Śākyamuni Buddha [up to] Vipaśyin Buddha during their meditation.94

As stated above, this sūtra does not describe specific contemplation methods or images of abhiṣeka like the Secret Essentials or the Methods of Curing. Instead, it renders “abhi-ṣeka” as a dhāraṇī, as Tsukinowa (1971, p. 95) states that the Visualization of Bhaiṣajya has “a habit of calling dhāraṇī as abhiṣeka” and teaches its recitation. Concerning the Medicine King and Medicine Lord,95 the Methods of Curing also refers to them and preaches dhāraṇīs. These two scriptures were probably developed among people with similar backgrounds. However, it should be noted that in this sūtra, while the seven Buddhas of the past appear, Maitreya is not shown, and the monk Maitreya Ajita is represented as one of the participants of the assembly.

3.4. The Avalokiteśvara Dhāraṇī

The sūtra entitled Qing Guanshiyin pusa xiaofu duhai tuoluoni zhou jing (請観觀世音菩薩消伏毒害陀羅尼呪經, T. 1043, Avalokiteśvara Dhāraṇī/QGT) also has no known Sanskrit or Tibetan translations, and the Chinese translation was rendered by Nandi (難提) at the beginning of the Liu Song dynasty in 420 CE.96 Ōtsuka (2013a, pp. 279ff) states that this sūtra is composed of the following four stories: (1) the story of relief from an epidemic at Vaiśālī, as described in the Bhaiṣajyavastu; (2) the story of relief through chanting the name of Avalokiteśvara; (3) the story of relieving a woman named Caṇḍālī, which is related to the six-syllable mantra in the Divyāvadāna; and (4) the story of the monk Upasena from the SĀ 252.

Among these, in the Vaiśālī story, the elder Somacchatra sees people suffering from illnesses and asks the Bhagavat for help, who instructs him to chant the name of Avalokiteśvara and the dhāraṇī. “Somacchatra” is the former name of Medicine King in the Visualization of Bhaiṣajya.

The following story of Avalokiteśvara’s salvation preaches the merit of reciting the name of Buddhas. It states that if one contemplates the Buddhas of the ten directions and the seven Buddhas of the past and recites the name of Avalokiteśvara wholeheartedly, then one will be able to see Avalokiteśvara in this very life. Furthermore, it refers to the dhāraṇī of Avalokiteśvara as the “offering of ambrosia medicine to all beings” (施一切衆生甘露妙薬) and refers to the act of chanting the names and the spells as “dhāraṇī abhiṣeka” (陀羅尼灌頂).97

The story of the monk Upasena states that if one wishes to obtain the Dharma, which is an ambrosia of the most excellent flavor, one should practice the five gates of meditation: impurity, the four elements, the twelve links of dependent origination, breathing, and compassion.98 The SĀ 252, on which this story is based, and the corresponding passages in the *Mūlasarvāstivāda-vinaya both discuss the six elements (六界, *ṣaḍ-dhātu), including space and consciousness,99 not the four elements. Thus, this sūtra is closer to the Secret Essentials and the Methods of Curing, which have the four elements, than it is to the Yogalehrbuch, which discusses the six dhātus.

Regarding these meditations, Ōtsuka (2013a, p. 359) assumes that some early esoteric Buddhist scriptures were influenced by meditation manuals and that the Visualization of Bhaiṣajya was established within a similar background. Considering the explanation regarding the contemplation of the four elements and the elimination of illness, it can be observed that the Secret Essentials and the Methods of Curing were probably more influential than manuals associated with the Yogalehrbuch. The Visualization of Bhaiṣajya, which emphasizes the efficacy of medicine, is thought to have been edited under the influence of the meditation manuals, such as the Methods of Curing, which propound faith in Maitreya and the seven Buddhas of the past. Furthermore, it is likely that the Avalokiteśvara Dhāraṇī, which explores the efficacy of chanting the name of Avalokiteśvara instead of Maitreya, was created against a similar background.100 However, these examples of early esoteric Buddhist literature do not provide visual depictions of abhiṣeka but instead only contain the names “ambrosia medicine” and “dhāraṇī abhiṣeka”. Moreover, they explain the merit of chanting dhāraṇī as an alternative to medicine.

4. Conclusions

This paper first presented a discussion of the 16 stages of ānāpānasmṛti. It was found that the Yogalehrbuch follows the structure of practice given in the Saṃyuktāgama, and that it is also influenced in part by older Sarvāstivāda wording. However, since it does not adopt the correlation with the four dhyānas, the order instructed in the Vibhāṣā, and the theory indicated in the Abhidharmakośa, apparently the contents of the ānāpānasmṛti were transmitted without accepting a highly systematized Abhidharma theory.

Although I was unable to clarify the scripture by which the Yogalehrbuch was more influenced, I found unique meditative images associated with the Abhidharmic explanations in each of the 16 steps. Of these images, the image of oil symbolizes joy and indulgence in meditation. Moreover, while the image of sprinkling oil or water (abhiṣeka) has similar meanings, it represents the perfection of a certain level of meditation, which can be seen in steps (4) and (16). This expression is found along with the context of tying a cloth (paṭṭa) to the head in steps (12) and (16), indicating that the practitioner has reached the highest status.

Considering the examples in other sections, the Yogalehrbuch’s descriptions of abhi-ṣeka appear to be associated with episodes in Sakyamuni’s life. It is not impossible that the meditation method in which the practitioner projects Sakyamuni’s life onto oneself could have been one of the formative elements of esoteric meditation.

Next, this paper compared distinctive expressions of the Yogalehrbuch with those of other texts. In the Secret Essentials, oil, ambrosia, and medicine are presented as what cures diseases rather than joy and indulgence in meditation. Similarly, the term abhiṣeka, in the form of sprinkling water or oil, is considered for healing the mind and body, removing worldly desires, and purifying sins. Interestingly, it is also used as the name of the meditation it preaches. In the Methods of Curing, abhiṣeka strongly represents the healing of illness and dhāraṇīs, and the Medicine King and Medicine Lord preach Mahāyāna teachings and cure physical diseases. In the Visualization of Bhaiṣajya, which depicts the Medicine King and Medicine Lord, while the expressions of ambrosia and medicine are found, they do not appear as meditative images but are used as the names of dhāraṇīs. The act of abhiṣeka is identified with cultivating good deeds and gaining dhāraṇīs, and Maitreya only appears as a bhikṣu. In the Avalokiteśvara Dhāraṇī, the terms ambrosia and medicine are also used as the names of dhāraṇīs. The term abhiṣeka is employed for the recitation of the name and the dhāraṇī of Avalokiteśvara. The Buddha Maitreya is not referenced, and instead, Avalokiteśvara is depicted as a healer. In these scriptures, oil and abhiṣeka are described as healing methods with little connection to the life of the Buddha and refer to abhiṣeka as the name of a spell alone rather than as a meditative image. And while belief in past Buddhas remains, belief in Maitreya fades into obscurity.

In light of the above, it is possible to state that the practice of the Yogalehrbuch was formed, in its structure, under the influence of Sarvāstivāda thought, around the same time that the belief in Maitreya and the seven Buddhas was popular in Central Asia. Since there is no indication of dhāraṇīs or mantras, the Yogalehrbuch was compiled around the 5th century CE, approximately contemporaneous with the Secret Essentials, which also makes no mention of dhāraṇīs. On the other hand, the Methods of Curing incorporated the elements of dhāraṇī thought, turning it into a Mahāyāna text, which might have influenced early esoteric Buddhist texts such as the Visualization of Bhaiṣajya. Nevertheless, the absence of dhāraṇīs in the Yogalehrbuch does not entirely negate the possibility of its esoteric aspects. The Yogalehrbuch explicitly portrays contemplative images associated with Śākyamuni’s life, such as meditative accomplishment, rather than merely healing the body. It is possible to assume that this specific meditation method may have contributed to the development of esoteric practice, which involves contemplating oneself as the Buddha.