A Reading of 2 Kings 18:17–19:9a, 36–37 as a Trauma Narrative
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodologies: Collective Memory and Trauma Process Theories
3. Cultural Trauma Process in the Narrative of Source B1
3.1. Identifications of the Pain and the Perpetrator(s) (2 Kgs 18:17–18)
3.2. Traumatic Memory About Unequal Power Relations in the Royal Titles (2 Kgs 18:19–33)
3.3. Traumatic Memory About Undermined Trust (בטח) (2 Kgs 18:19–25)
In expressing his strong doubt about any trust-based relationship between Yhwh and Hezekiah, the Assyrian official claimed that the Judaean king had demolished the so-called “high-places” (במות), causing Yhwh to stand against him.14 While the preceding narrative (2 Kgs 18:3–7) considered the cultic centralization through the breaking of the local shrines, including the high places, as a positive aspect of the Judaean king (Cogan and Tadmor 1988, p. 220), the Rabshakeh criticized it as one of the poignant matters regarding the fate of the people of Jerusalem and that of the king.
וכי תאמרון אלי אל יהוה אלהינו בטחנו הלוא הוא אשר הסיר חזקיהו את במתיו ואת מזבחתיו ויאמר ליהודה ולירושלם לפני המזבח הזה תשתחוו בירושלם
3.4. The Identification of the Victim(s) and the Intensification of the Pain (2 Kgs 18:26–27)
3.5. Traumatic Memory About Undermined Hope for Rescue (נצל) (2 Kgs 18:28–35)
ואל יבטח אתכם חזקיהו אל יהוה לאמר הצל יצילנו יהוה ולא תנתן את העיר הזאת ביד מלך אשור
According to Sennacherib’s logic, the people of Judah needed to surrender to the Assyrian king for their own deliverance.מי בכל אלהי הארצות אשר הצילו את ארצם מידי כי יציל יהוה את ירושלם מידי
3.6. The Silence After the Rabshakeh’s Speeches (2 Kgs 18:36)
Since the Assyrian official persisted in threatening Jerusalem to surrender without compromise in the language of Judah, it would not have been beneficial for Hezekiah and the people of Jerusalem to continue arguing against Assyria any further (Hobbs 1985, p. 260).החרישו העם ולא ענו אתו דבר כי מצות המלך היא לאמר לא תענהו
3.7. Subversion of the Speeches and the Revision of Yhwh’s Identity (2 Kgs 18:37–19:9a, 36–37)
4. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
1 | The narrative of 2 Kgs 18:17–19:9a, 36–37 as one whole narrative (the so-called “source B1”) is based upon the source division suggested by B. Stade and later revised by Brevard Childs. See (Stade 1886, in particular, pp. 172–83; Childs 1967, pp. 73–103). There has been scholarly discussion about source(s) and tradition(s) behind the passage of 2 Kgs 18:13–19:37/Isa 36–37 since B. Stade. It would be beyond the focus of this paper to discuss all the details of the discussion. Instead, it focuses on the integrity of 2 Kgs. 18:17–19a, 36–37 as an independent whole narrative and its possible features of a trauma narrative. For a brief summary of the past research, see (Evans 2009, pp. 1–15; Kahn 2020, pp. 23–67). |
2 | Alexander employed “collective trauma” and “cultural trauma” interchangeably throughout his article to introduce his theory of cultural trauma. (Alexander 2004). |
3 | (Alexander 2004, p. 10). He argued, “For traumas to emerge at the level of the collectivity, social crises must become cultural crises”. |
4 | Alexander (2004, p. 15) suggests that a trauma narrative tends to establish the identity of the perpetrator for the “attribution of responsibility”. |
5 | The Rabshakeh’s speech can be considered as two rounds of speech with a transitional response from the Judaean officials and the conventional messenger formula for each round. Machinist points out that those two speeches are interrelated to form a whole argument for the surrender of Judah to Sennacherib. See (Gonçalves 1986, pp. 394–408; Ben-Zvi 1990, pp. 82–91; Machinist 2000, p. 155). |
6 | המלך הגדול מלך אשור, which is one of Sennacherib’s royal titles, occurs twice in the Rabshakeh’s speeches (2 Kgs 18:19, 28). |
7 | בטח occurs seven times in total in the Rabshakeh’s speeches (2 Kgs 18: 19b, 20b, 21ab (2), 22a, 24b, 30a). |
8 | Regarding the Rabshakeh’s first speech, Gonçalves (1986, p. 398) suggests that it consists of three-part parallel symmetry (ABCA’B’C’). In the literary structure, the A part describes Hezekiah’s weakness (2 Kgs 18:20a, 23–24a), the B part describes Hezekiah’s trust in Egypt (2 Kgs 18:21, 24b), and the C part describes trust in Yhwh (2 Kgs 18:22, 25) in his rebellion against Assyria. |
9 | Cf. Esarhaddon’s letter to the Babylonians, ABL 403 for דבר שפתים. See (Oppenheim 1977, p. 170). |
10 | Cf. Prov. 14:23 for דבר שפתים and Prov. 8:14, Job 12:13 for the pairing of עצה and גבורה. See (Cogan and Tadmor 1988, p. 231; Ben-Zvi 1990, p. 83). |
11 | Jerome Walsh (2011, p. 273) suggested that this remark possibly refers to a verbal agreement between Hezekiah and Egypt for military support. |
12 | Chaim Cohen (1979, pp. 41–43) suggests that this expression reflects Neo-Assyrian annalistic style. |
13 | Ironically, the Rabshakeh’s rebuke of Hezekiah regarding the alliance between Judah and Egypt reflects the author or the redactor’s negative understanding of the Judaean king. Even though Isaiah’s opposition to Hezekiah’s alliance with Egypt was not clearly described in 2 Kgs 18-19, the reliance upon Egypt was considered futile in other biblical texts (Hos 12:2; 2 Kgs 17:4; Isa 30:1–5; 31:1, 3; Jer 37:6–8; Ezek 29:6–7). Hezekiah’s choice to rely upon Egypt was related to his rebellion against Assyria, which finally led to Sennacherib’s military campaign against Judah. (Ben-Zvi 1990, p. 84). |
14 | Scholarly discussions about במות have included but are not limited to its semantic features, relationship to the composition of the books of Kings, and historical reconstruction of the religious reform of Hezekiah. Those discussions are beyond the scope of this article. For more details, see (Haran 1978; Whitney 1979; Barrick 1996; Fried 2002; Finkelstein and Silberman 2006; Edelman 2008; Hardy and Thomas 2012). |
15 | Walsh pointed out that the addressee of the speech was switched back and forth between the envoy of Judah (2 Kgs 18:19aβbα, 22a, 22b) and Hezekiah (2 Kgs 18:19bβ, 20a, 20b, 21a, 21b, 23a, 23b, 24). For more detail, see (Walsh 2011, pp. 268–72). |
16 | Dubovský (2006, pp. 16–17) suggested that this image was intended to evoke the memories of other sieges that the Israelites had previously experienced as a part of psychological war tactics. (Cf. 2 Kgs 6–7). |
17 | Cf. The word “trust” (בטח) is written only once in the Rabshakeh’s second speech (2 Kgs 19:30). |
18 | David Janzen argued that individual traumas tend to be implicit or even suppressed in the Hebrew Bible. (Janzen 2019). |
19 | Cf. 1 Sam 17:26b, 36b. (Gonçalves 1986, pp. 422–23). |
20 | (Sweeney 2007, p. 419). Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 B.C.E., but the narrative of Source B1 relates his assignation to the fulfillment of the divine judgment on him regarding his military campaign against Judah. |
21 | Cf. (Hayes 1963, pp. 419–26). John Hayes argued that Isaiah used the pre-Davidic or non-Israelite traditions concerning the invulnerability of Jerusalem in the narrative about Assyria. His argument is important in that it implies the identity revision of Yhwh after the withdrawal of Sennacherib from Jerusalem. |
22 | (Beuken 2010, pp. 358–410). Regarding the narrative of Isa 36–37, Beuken posited a theme question, “Wem gebühurt die Herrschaft über Zion?” |
23 | Michael Press argued that the passage of 2 Kgs 18:34 with 2 Kgs 17 is superficial bluster as part of Deuteronomistic ridicule of false gods and divine statutes. (Press 2015, pp. 220–21). |
References
- Alexander, Jeffrey C. 2004. Toward a Theory of Cultural Trauma. In Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 1–30. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, Jeffrey C. 2016. Culture Trauma, Morality and Solidarity: The Social Construction of “Holocaust” and Other Mass Murders. Thesis Eleven 132: 3–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assmann, Jan. 1995. Collective Memory and Cultural Identity. Translated by John Czaplicka. New German Critique 65: 125–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Assmann, Jan. 2006. Religion and Cultural Memory: Ten Studies. Cultural Memory in the Present. Stanford: Stanford University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Barrick, W. Boyd. 1996. On the Meaning of בֵּית־הַ/בָּמוֹת and בָּתֵּי־הַבָּמוֹת and the Composition of the Kings History. Journal of Biblical Literature 115: 621–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ben-Zvi, Ehud. 1990. Who Wrote the Speech of Rabshakeh and When? Journal of Biblical Literature 109: 79–92. [Google Scholar]
- Berges, Ulrich. 1998. Das Buch Jesaja: Komposition Und Endgestalt. Herders Biblische Studien. Freiburg: Herder. [Google Scholar]
- Beuken, Willem. 2010. Jesaja 28–ß39, Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament. Freiburg: Herder, pp. 358–410. [Google Scholar]
- Childs, Brevard S. 1967. Isaiah and the Assyrian Crisis. London: SCM Press. [Google Scholar]
- Cogan, Mordechai, and Hayim Tadmor. 1988. II Kings, 1st ed. The Anchor Bible, v. 11. Garden City: Doubleday. [Google Scholar]
- Cohen, Chaim. 1979. Neo-Assyrian Elements in the First Speech of the Biblical Rab-Šāqê. In Israel Oriental Studies, IX. Tel-Aviv: Tel-Aviv University, pp. 41–43. [Google Scholar]
- Dion, Paul-Eugène. 1989. Sennacherib’s Expedition to Palestine. Église et Théologie 20: 5–25. [Google Scholar]
- Dubovský, Peter. 2006. Hezekiah and the Assyrian Spies: Reconstruction of the Neo-Assyrian Intelligence Services and Its Significance for 2 Kings 18-19. Roma: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico. [Google Scholar]
- Edelman, Diana. 2008. Hezekiah’s Alleged Cultic Centralization. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32: 395–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Erikson, Kai T. 1976. Everything in Its Path: Destruction of Community in the Buffalo Creek Flood. New York: Simon and Schuster. [Google Scholar]
- Evans, Paul S. 2009. The Invasion of Sennacherib in the Book of Kings: A Source-Critical and Rhetorical Study of 2 Kings 18-19. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, v. 125. Leiden and Boston: Brill, pp. 1–15. [Google Scholar]
- Finkelstein, Israel, and Neil Asher Silberman. 2006. Temple and Dynasty: Hezekiah, the Remaking of Judah and the Rise of the Pan-Israelite Ideology. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 30: 259–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frechette, Christopher G., and Elizabeth Boase. 2016. Defining “Trauma” as a Useful Lens for Bblical Interpretation. In Bible Through the Lens of Trauma. Edited by Elizabeth Boase and Christopher G. Frechette. Semeia Studies. Atlanta: SBL Press, vol. 86, pp. 1–23. [Google Scholar]
- Fried, Lisbeth S. 2002. The High Places (Bāmôt) and the Reforms of Hezekiah and Josiah: An Archaeological Investigation. Journal of the American Oriental Society 122: 437–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gevaryahu, Haim M. I. 1964. The Speech of Rab-Shakeh to the People on the Wall of Jerusalem. In Studies in the Bible: Presented to Professor M.H. Segal by His Colleagues and Students. Edited by Jacob Liver and Jehoshua M. Grintz. Jerusalem: Kiryat Sepher Ltd., pp. 94–102. [Google Scholar]
- Gonçalves, Francolino J (José). 1986. L’expédition de Sennachérib En Palestine Dans La Littérature Hébraïque Ancienne. Etudes Bibliques Ns, 7. Paris: J Gabalda, Peeters. [Google Scholar]
- Grayson, A. Kirk, and Jamie R Novotny, eds. 2012. The Royal Inscriptions of Sennacherib, King of Assyria (704-681 BC), Part 1. 3 vols. The Royal Inscriptions of the Neo-Assyrian Period (RINAP). Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, vol. 1. [Google Scholar]
- Halbwachs, Maurice. 1992. On Collective Memory. Translated by Lewis A. Coser. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]
- Haran, Menahem. 1978. The High-Places. In Temples and Temple-Service in Ancient Israel: An Inquiry into the Character of Cult Phenomena and the Historical Setting of the Priestly School. Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 18–25. [Google Scholar]
- Hardy, Humphrey Hill, II, and Benjamin D. Thomas. 2012. Another Look at Biblical Hebrew Bəmə “High Place”. Vetus Testamentum 62: 175–88. [Google Scholar]
- Hayes, John H. 1963. The Tradition of Zion’s Inviolability. Journal of Biblical Literature 82: 419–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hobbs, T. Raymond. 1985. 2 Kings. Word Biblical Commentary, v. 13. Waco: Word Books. [Google Scholar]
- Hom, Mary Katherine Y. H. 2012. The Characterisation of the Assyrians in Isaiah: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives, 1st ed. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies 559. New York: T & T Clark International. [Google Scholar]
- Hunt, Nigel C. 2010. Memory, War, and Trauma. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Janzen, David. 2019. Claimed and Unclaimed Experience: Problematic Readings of Trauma in the Hebrew Bible. Biblical Interpretation 27: 163–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kahn, Dan’el. 2020. Sennacherib’s Campaign Against Judah: A Source Analysis of Isaiah 36-37. Society for Old Testament Study Monographs. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Liwak, Rüdiger. 1986. Die Rettung Jerusalems Im Jahr 701 Vor Christus: Zum Verhältnis Und Verständnis Historischer Und Theologischer Aussagen. Zeitschrift Für Theologie Und Kirche 83: 137–66. [Google Scholar]
- Machinist, Peter. 2000. The Rab Šāqēh at the Wall of Jerusalem: Israelite Identity in the Face of the Assyrian “Other”. Hebrew Studies 41: 151–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Na’aman, Nadav. 2000. New Light on Hezekiah’s Second Prophetic Story (2 Kgs 19,9b-35). Biblica 81: 393–402. [Google Scholar]
- Oppenheim, A. Leo. 1977. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, rev. ed. Edited by Erica Reiner. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]
- Press, Michael. 2015. Where Are the Gods of Hamath? (2 Kings 18.34//Isaiah 36.19): The Use of Foreign Deities in the Rabshakeh’s Speech. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 40: 201–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smelser, Neil J. 2004. Psychological Trauma and Cultural Trauma. In Cultural Trauma and Collective Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 31–59. [Google Scholar]
- Stade, Bernhard. 1886. Miscellen. Zeitschrift Für Die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 6: 122–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sweeney, Marvin A. 2007. I & II Kings: A Commentary, 1st ed. The Old Testament Library. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. [Google Scholar]
- Tal, Kalí. 1996. Worlds of Hurt: Reading the Literatures of Trauma. Cambridge Studies in American Literature and Culture 95. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Walsh, Jerome T. 2011. The Rab Šāqēh between Rhetoric and Redaction. Journal of Biblical Literature 130: 263–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Whitney, John T. 1979. “Bamoth” in the Old Testament. Tyndale Bulletin 30: 125–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yadin, Yigael. 1963. The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands in the Light of Archaeological Study. 2 vols. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., vol. 2. [Google Scholar]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lee, W.M. A Reading of 2 Kings 18:17–19:9a, 36–37 as a Trauma Narrative. Religions 2024, 15, 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111332
Lee WM. A Reading of 2 Kings 18:17–19:9a, 36–37 as a Trauma Narrative. Religions. 2024; 15(11):1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111332
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Woo Min. 2024. "A Reading of 2 Kings 18:17–19:9a, 36–37 as a Trauma Narrative" Religions 15, no. 11: 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111332
APA StyleLee, W. M. (2024). A Reading of 2 Kings 18:17–19:9a, 36–37 as a Trauma Narrative. Religions, 15(11), 1332. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111332