Pope Francis, Islam, and the Ethics of Recognition: Openings and Muslim Responses

Abstract

Through his numerous visits to the Muslim world, and by promoting an ethics of recognition of Islam, Pope Francis built trust and a religious encounter with various Muslim institutions. His dedication to global ethical concerns, such as human brotherhood, the environment, migration, and peace, has made religious leaders throughout the Middle East, particularly in Iraq, Egypt, and the Gulf states, favourable to interfaith co-operation with the Catholic Church for the common good. In particular, Pope Francis has influenced how justice and tolerance are perceived by many in the Muslim world, as evidenced by various Muslim responses to his messages. He was therefore effective in initiating an ethical encounter to overcome injustice and violence, in addition to re-establishing religious diplomacy and communication with Islam.

1. Introduction

In the past fifteen years, there have been tremendous shifts in the relationship between Islam and the Catholic Church. The discourse surrounding the clash of civilizations, along with radical Islamist terrorism and military invasions, have strained relations between Christians and Muslims since 2001. This has exacerbated animosity and division while diverting focus away from urgent global problems such as poverty, violence, and the environment. After the breakup in 2006 over the Regensburg lecture and accusations of Islamophobia against the Catholic Church (Ejiofor 2023, p. 2868), the Vatican and al-Azhar, the most authoritative Sunni institution, forged a friendly relationship that culminated in the 2019 Abu Dhabi declaration on human fraternity (Johnston 2021, p. 19). This drastic change is the result of a number of causes, chief among them being the overtures that Pope Francis has made towards Islam since 2013 (when he became head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State) and the growing discontent with violence in the Muslim world (especially in the aftermath of the bloody years of 2003–2017).

This article focuses on the impact and reception of Pope Francis throughout the Muslim world, making the case that there were expectations for both the Muslim political and religious leadership and the Catholic Church to genuinely resolve the crisis and find common ethical ground between Muslims and Christians. The achievement of restoring friendship and trust between the Catholic Church and Islam can be attributed to a set of circumstances, but Pope Francis’ ethics of acknowledgment were crucial to the effort; his actions and statements were not merely an attempt at conversation with Islam or another tour of religious diplomacy. These elements of dialogue and diplomacy, while evident in his actions and speech, serve as a vehicle for an authentic religious endeavour opposing violence, economic greed, and inequality. That is to say, in the current encounter between the Catholic Church and Islam, content counts just as much as, if not more than, communication. The new religious endeavour between Islam and the Catholic Church is primarily motivated by four pressing issues: human brotherhood, ecology, migration, and peace. These are worldwide concerns that affect both the Middle East, home to many Christian communities, and the West, particularly Europe, where a sizable Muslim population lives today.

According to Roberto Catalano, Pope Francis’ involvement with Islam is a step toward “inter-religious synodality”. As a result, his entire action can be characterized as dialogue-oriented, with various levels of dialogue, such as dialogue as a style, dialogue between religions, building a culture of dialogue with others, dialogue as a duty for everyone, dialogue as a means of discovering and strengthening one’s own identity, embracing “incomplete thinking” as a crucial component of dialogue, empathy as a fundamental component of dialogue, fraternity and “mercy” as central categories for dialogue, and dialogue as a means of co-operation and co-witnessing. His encounter with Islam serves as an example of this dedication to practising dialogue’s many facets (Catalano 2022). While dialogue is undoubtedly vital, acknowledgment is even more crucial for real dialogue to occur. From the perspective of the Muslim world, Pope Francis demonstrated genuine ethics of acknowledgment with Islam, as I will demonstrate through the responses of Muslim religious leaders and intellectuals. Consequently, Muslims welcomed Pope Francis as a man who shares their ethical concerns, global issues, interests, and expectations.

Another crucial factor in understanding Pope Francis’ encounter with Islam is the unfavourable perception of Islam in the West. The image of Islam and Muslims in the West has been damaged by terrorism committed in the name of Islam in recent decades. As a result, both Islam and the West have a negative perception of one another, despite the fact that many Muslims and Westerners share concerns for mankind and want to ease tensions and disputes. Pope Francis’ point of view appears to symbolize the kind of West that can work with Islam to find shared ethical ground; he represents the “ethical West” against the ultra-liberal or imperialist West, so to speak. The fear of the Islamization of Europe within some circles of the Catholic Church and the West drove Pope Francis to establish a state of mind that promotes peace, which some view as a yielding a kind of irenicism, or the “Islamization” of Europe (Impagliazzo 2019, p. 153). Pope Francis, therefore, prioritizes advancing processes, having the ability to make distinctions and overcome fear when it comes to challenging issues like fundamentalism and freedom of speech. According to Impagliazzo, the crux of Pope Francis’ trust in Islam is how both religions respond to conflicts. Thus, a major area of shared interest is putting an end to bloodshed and fostering peace in relations between Islam and Christianity (Impagliazzo 2019, p. 159).

Theoretically speaking, what Axel Honneth refers to as recognition being the moral foundation in international relations is the best explanation for the contemporary interactions between Islam and the Catholic Church (Honneth 2012, p. 137). Mutual recognition is a prerequisite for the possibility of free, rational, and undisturbed liberty, while disrespect breeds resistance and social conflict (Honneth 1995, p. 160; Honneth 2021, p. 131). Pope Francis’ acknowledgement of Muslims’ right to diversity is one of his actions that appears to have had a favourable impact on the Muslim community. He addressed Islam as an authentic tradition with a unique philosophy that does not always coincide with Western thought. However, he believes that Islam is equally capable of embracing humanism and finding common ground with Christianity without sacrificing its core values. Pope Francis established a civilizational encounter based on mutual recognition, which dissuades cultural hegemony and the arrogance of dictating what is right or wrong for other religions. The principles of modesty and dignity taught by both religions are likewise consistent with the ethics of recognition.

In particular, it is argued here that Pope Francis, throughout his several visits to the Muslim world, created opportunities that, when added together, acknowledged Muslim authorities as religious allies, satisfying the desire for recognition inside Islamic institutions in the face of Western hegemony. Pope Francis’ humble demeanour as a Western and Catholic leader proved essential in identifying openings for interaction with the Islamic world. Furthermore, I contend that Catholic and Islamic ethics usually share views on bioethics, economics, ecology, and inequality, despite minor discrepancies, which is why Pope Francis was able to persuade Muslims to support his vision of an ethical encounter. Thus, beyond reactions of communicative and diplomatic character issued by Muslims with regard to Pope Francis, I suggest critically engaging with a few reasoned and elaborated responses by Muslim intellectuals to Pope Francis’ commitment towards relations with Islam. The Muslim responses I examine here exhibit a tendency that needs to be taken into consideration, even though they are not significant enough to support a broad observation.

2. Openings and Extending Recognition: Visits to the Muslim World

Pope Francis’ first pastoral visit to the Middle East since assuming office in 2013 was to Jordan, and took place in 2014. The visit’s objectives were to build ties with Middle Eastern Orthodox Christians and to instil hope among the local Christian communities. Israel and the Palestinian Territories were also included in the visit. On 28–29 April 2017, Pope Francis made his two-day visit to Egypt. This was the first pastoral visit to Egypt in seventeen years, since Pope John Paul II’s 2000 visit to Egypt. In 2019, Pope Francis made the first pastoral visit ever of a pope to the Arabian Peninsula when he paid a visit to the United Arab Emirates. His visit to Morocco that same year came after Pope John Paul II’s visit to Morocco in 1985. Pope Francis’ visit to Iraq in 2021 was warmly welcomed, particularly his meeting with the country’s top Shiite authority, achieving the declaration of a day of tolerance. Pope Francis’ last visit to the Arab world occurred in 2022, when he travelled to Bahrain as a participant in the East and West for Human Coexistence Bahrain Dialogue Forum. In the Muslim world outside of the Arab nations, Pope Francis’ visits to Indonesia in 2024, a significant Islamic nation, as well his previous travel to Turkey in 2014, Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2015, and Kazakhstan in 2022, to take part in the 7th Congress of Leaders of World and Traditional Religions1, were all important events, attracting, each time, religious and political attention in the host countries, with the unifying message of peacemaking (Aguilar 2021).

Pope Francis’ 2017 visit to Egypt, for instance, sparked a lot of enthusiasm and accolades.2 However, 45 Christians were slain in two churches in Tanta and Alexandria by two terrorist attacks a few weeks prior to this visit. In his address to Muslims, Pope Francis mixed the delegitimization of terrorism with his support for Christians who had been persecuted in recent years (the Catholic Church has taken action to protect persecuted Christians (Ujházi 2021; Kaló et al. 2024)). It is important to remember that the relationship between Islam and the Vatican went through a major crisis following Pope Benedict’s 2006 Regensburg lecture, which prompted al-Azhar, the highest Sunni authority in the Muslim world, to freeze relations with the Vatican indefinitely in 2011.3 Yet, the warm dispositions regarding Pope Francis’ visits demonstrate how the Regensburg address had a limited impact on relations between Christianity and Islam.

Pope Francis was received as a holy father who fosters reconciliation, exemplifying the finest that religion has to offer in terms of commanding moral authority. His visits held additional significance in light of the events between 2014 and 2022, which had a profound influence on the area. First, the Middle East went through the so-called Arab Spring, which the governments of the region saw as an attempt by the West to instigate turmoil in the Middle East. The Palestinian issue and the civil wars in Syria, Iraq, and Libya have significantly eroded confidence in the West. Pope Francis thus stands as a Western leader who promotes peace and hope, rather than actively starting wars in the region. Second, an atmosphere of dread stemming from politicized religion has been brought about by Islamist terrorism, carried out by different Sunni and Shii factions in Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Libya, etc. The discourses of Islamist movements in the region, which use religion to incite violence, hardly ever link religion to peace, tolerance, and reconciliation. In general, many Christians criticize Islamism for being inhibitive of religious plurality (Sudworth 2013).

Perhaps because Pope Francis came to the Middle East as a man of peace at a time when the people in the region were weary of war and strife, he was well-hailed throughout his seven visits to the Middle East. As a result of the politicization of Islam and various geopolitical plots, the region lost many of its religious, human (because of migration and conflict), and economic resources, which have been taken advantage of unjustly by certain Western powers and regional elites. Thus, there is an obvious desire for peace and equity among the peoples of the Middle East.4 The recent wars in Gaza, Lebanon, and Syria (2023–2024) provide ample evidence of the perils of politicizing religion, sectarianism, and retaliation for peace and the coexistence of peoples and faiths in the Middle East.

Beyond the ethics of recognition, hope is at stake in these visits, even if the Vatican is also a political entity of some sort and has a history of tying religion and politics together. In other words, since 2003, war, terror, and economic devastation have dominated people’s lives in the Middle East virtually without pause, and there has been a growing hope for peace and an end to both Western and non-Western interference in the region. Thus, the prospect of regional peace was rekindled by these pastoral visits, although peace does not depend on the Pope alone. First and foremost, it is the responsibility of Middle Eastern states to accept all members of various religions and ethnic groups as citizens with equal rights and value. Even at the highest level, religious authorities’ co-operation cannot replace inclusive state building or the sharing of power and resources.

3. Common Ethical Grounds

Prior to Pope Francis’ 2014 visit to Jordan, the Catholic Church and Islam had been working on a shared ethical foundation. The open letter “A Common Word between Us and You”, which was addressed from Muslim leaders to Christian leaders and was produced on 13 October 2007, originated in Jordan, and remains to date a key document of Islamo-Christian common ethics. The author of this document was Jordan’s Prince Ghazi bin Muhammad bin Talal, and the document was signed by a wide range of well-known Muslim figures from different continents and countries. This letter served as an invitation to investigate the love of God and one’s neighbour in Islam and Christianity, as a moral foundation for peaceful coexistence. It became a cornerstone of Muslim–Christian relations, after receiving favourable responses from both Muslim and Christian organizations, including the Vatican (Hoover 2009; Malik 2013). While “A Common Word between Us and You” did provide the foundation for some ethical common ground between Christianity and Islam, Pope Francis’ ethical engagement with Islam was far deeper and more comprehensive.

3.1. Human Brotherhood

On 4 February 2019, Pope Francis and Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, signed a joint statement, known as The Document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together, the Abu Dhabi declaration, or the Abu Dhabi agreement, in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. This is arguably the most notable example of the Vatican and Islam’s rapprochement in recent times. As a result of this initiative, human brotherhood became a subject of common interest between Muslims and Christians, even if each religion has its own definition of the concept, which its theology and ethics have long reflected on. This statement boldly advanced the idea of humankind’s collective endeavours as brothers and sisters. In its opening words, this document states that faith enables one to see, in another person, a brother or sister who needs support and love. It also exhorts readers to promote a culture of mutual respect in the awareness of the great divine grace that makes all human beings brothers and sisters, urging people to work together and show love for one another.5

While the Document on Human Fraternity had an impact all over the world (Kulska 2021, p. 42), fraternity is still a “forgotten principle” or “overlooked element” in political theory (Solarz and Kulska 2025), perhaps because post-secular identities are still negotiated in international relations, a field that is dominated by power and secular paradigms (Kulska and Solarz 2021). As the topic of this investigation is Pope Francis’ reception in the Muslim world, I will concentrate on the text’s influence in the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia, the centre of Sunni Islam, to which adhere the vast majority of Muslims. Furthermore, the most intolerant form of Sunni Islam, known as Salafism, is centred in Saudi Arabia. It has consistently rejected the notion of human fraternity, preaching that Muslims should be loyal and brotherly to other Muslims only, while non-Muslims should be disavowed as foes (Duderija 2011; Wagemakers 2008). Since the beginning of Mohammed bin Salman’s effective rule of the kingdom in 2017, Saudi religious rhetoric has consistently espoused the discourse of humankind’s shared interests and values.6 Thus, Saudi Arabia has committed to a number of regional and global initiatives to advance human fraternity since 2020. As a joint initiative to fortify global peace and security, Saudi Arabia and Croatia published the Zagreb Declaration of Human Fraternity in 2020, together with many participants representing various religious denominations from all across the world (Hasanović 2022, p. 158). The Abu Dhabi declaration on human brotherhood was echoed in the Zagreb Declaration, which also includes a statement demanding that religious communities live together as citizens of the same country.7 By accepting diversity within the framework of national unity and recognizing the universal nature of human fraternity, this declaration better localizes the concept of brotherhood.

Muhammad Al-Issa, the Saudi director of the Muslim World League and an advocate of the Zagreb Declaration, stated that “the depth of human brotherhood is witnessed by human common values, which should catalyze human cooperation”.8 He additionally pointed out that “cultivating the meaning of our human brotherhood eliminates barriers, bridges gaps, builds bridges, and strengthens our resolve to work on our common humanity, which represents a natural law” (See Note 4). Thus, Mohammed bin Salman’s political reforms in Saudi Arabia, which aim to modernize religious institutions and discourse, have made it easier, at least as a political brand, to diffuse the idea of human fraternity, without encountering any major opposition from Salafi clerics.

Furthermore, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Egypt proposed a resolution on human brotherhood, which was unanimously approved by the United Nations on 21 December 2020. The resolution called for the establishment of an annual “International Day of Human Fraternity” on 4 February, beginning in 2021. This ruling reflects the commitment of Saudi Arabia’s new leadership to the diplomacy of human brotherhood, as well as the coordinated efforts of the four Arab-Muslim nations to prevent hate speech based on religion and promote tolerance.9 The 75/200 resolution was ultimately adopted to foster a culture of peace, calling for the elimination of all forms of intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief, and for the acknowledgement that tolerance, pluralism, mutual respect, and a diversity of religions and beliefs promote human fraternity; this resolution also encourages dialogue among all religious groups, to improve awareness and understanding of the common values shared by all people, and promote public acceptance of, and respect for, religious and cultural diversity, including with regard to religious expression.10

Inside Saudi Arabia, in February 2023, the King Abdulaziz Center for National Dialogue in Riyadh—established in 2003 to promote reform, following terrorist attacks within Saudi Arabia the same year—organized the First National Forum for Human Fraternity—Dialogue for Coexistence, with the participation of several members of the ruling family, government officials, and religious scholars. This was the first significant national initiative involving the nation’s religious and political leaders, with the goal of fostering human fraternity and co-operation, and taking measures to improve it inside the Kingdom. After decades of rejecting the notion of human brotherhood in religious discourse and emphasizing Islamic brotherhood instead, the conference aimed to promote and justify human fraternity inside Islamic thought. The Forum emphasized the role that public, commercial, and community institutions could play in establishing and bolstering human fraternity (Saudi Arabia’s ongoing usage of the sponsorship system, or kafāla, which mistreats migrant workers and grants employers complete authority over foreign employees’ legal rights, is a counterexample of human fraternity. The forum covered a wide range of subjects in which Saudi Arabia aspires to promote human brotherhood, especially the development of an Islamic ethics of human brotherhood, civil society organizations and their role in advancing the ideals of human brotherhood, the Kingdom’s humanitarian and development initiatives, and the role of education and the media in consolidating and propagating the principles of human brotherhood.11 All of these plans appear to be political marketing at the moment, but they have at least brought the idea of human fraternity into the public sphere, which is a significant departure from the previously supported rhetoric of exclusive Islamic fraternity.

At the level of intellectual discourse, Muslim scholars have been inspired by the Document on Human Fraternity to develop an Islamic ethical discourse on the subject, which represents a significant advancement in theological and philosophical efforts regarding inclusive and universalist religious concepts of tolerance, pluralism, co-existence, and peace (Ḥabash 2021; al-Suwaydī 2022). Between 2019 and 2023, Muslim scholars wrote more monographs on human brotherhood than at any other time in history, although much of this discourse is driven by the United Arab Emirates’ publication networks. The Gaza War, nonetheless, may put an end to this hope and faith in human brotherhood in the Muslim world.

At least, this document, issued by the highest authorities of Sunni Islam and Catholicism, delegitimized people who associate religion with acts of violence and bigotry. It showed that religion cannot be used as an excuse for political violence or terrorism. It also proved that a global religious effort by Christians and Muslims in favour of fraternity can reduce tension and prevent bloodshed, even though religious authorities cannot counteract the violence committed by states and organizations. Following his successful meeting with Islamic leaders in Abu Dhabi, Pope Francis released the document Fratelli tutti in 2020, which had a profound effect both in the West and abroad. In addition, on 4 February 2024, Pope Francis sent a letter to Abu Dhabi to celebrate the fifth anniversary of The Document on Human Fraternity, keeping alive the spirit of the Abu Dhabi declaration. In view of the current war in Gaza, Pope Francis’ dedication to fostering peace based on human brotherhood is even more significant.12

Some Western scholars have interpreted Fratelli tutti in an Islamic theological framework, using the concept of walāya, or friendship/sainthood, as a means of resisting injustice and neo-liberalism (Oaks Takács 2022). Others draw attention to the document of human brotherhood and Fratelli tutti’s audacious assertions of neighbourhood and social justice (Nguyen 2022), while some see it as a reflection of Pope Francis’ own thoughts on the idea of authentic religion, which forbids all forms of violence (Traore and Serge 2021). Enthusiasm for the Abu Dhabi declaration and Fratelli tutti was noteworthy, and generated a great deal of scholarly, religious, and philosophical reflections in the West, including among Muslim communities.

3.2. Ecology

Pope Francis’ environmental commitment is another facet of his encounter with Islam that has influenced both Muslim and Christian communities. In his encyclical letter Laudato si’ on Care of our Common Home, Pope Francis engages with Islam at two levels. First, he interacts with Sufism, while describing how to view nature as a source of sacramental signs. He asserts that “the universe unfolds in God, who fills it completely. Hence, there is a mystical meaning to be found in a leaf, in a mountain trail, in a dewdrop, in a poor person’s face”.13 Pope Francis cites the Sufi master ‘Alī al-Khawwāṣ (d. 1532), who emphasizes the importance of maintaining a close relationship between God’s inner experience and the creatures of the outside world. This is the quote to which Pope Francis alludes:

The spiritual writer Ali al-Khawas stresses from his own experience the need not to put too much distance between the creatures of the world and the interior experience of God. As he puts it: “Prejudice should not have us criticize those who seek ecstasy in music or poetry. There is a subtle mystery in each of the movements and sounds of this world. The initiate will capture what is being said when the wind blows, the trees sway, water flows, flies buzz, doors creak, birds sing, or in the sound of strings or flutes, the sighs of the sick, the groans of the afflicted….”14

This quote was taken by Pope Francis from Anthologie du soufisme, a 1978 collection of translated Sufi literature edited by Eva De Vitray-Meyerovitsch (1909–1999). Vitray-Meyerovitch, a prominent figure of Sufism in the West, was a French scholar of Islam who converted to Islam from Catholicism. She studied under Ḥamza al-Qādirī al Būdshīshī (1922–2017), a Moroccan Sufi master, and was a close partner of Louis Massignon, himself a prominent scholar of Sufism and a major voice of Islamic–Christian friendship; Vitray-Meyerovitch has contributed to the development of encounters between Sufi Islam and Christianity, making spirituality an inspiring and fertile ground for exchanges between the two faiths (Abdelli 2021). Thus, this quote is a clever method of recognizing spiritual Islam, honouring the spiritual-humanist philosophy that Sufi Islam stands for, as well as the rich legacy of Islam in general.

Muslims and non-Muslims have discussed this quote in a number of ways. On the Catholic side, Welle, Godlas, and Pisani have emphasized how Pope Francis acknowledges the “ecological heritage” of Islam and its global relevance, while encouraging Muslim theologians to use Laudato si’ as a tool for reflection on the environmental crisis (Welle and Godlas 2018; Welle 2017; Pisani 2016). Regarding Islam, the International Sufi Council, which met in Istanbul in September 2015, was ecstatic about the encyclical’s call for openness. According to Alberto Fabio Ambrosio, who attended this meeting, the Council even offered to visit the pope to carry on the conversation about preserving humanity’s greatest asset—the Earth (Ambrosio 2015). Furthermore, Adnane Mokrani, a Tunisian Muslim scholar who lives in Italy and teaches at the Pontifical Gregorian University, sees in Laudato si’ a key contribution to the future of inter-religious dialogue, as well as of global economics and politics (Mokrani 2017).

When Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb, the Grand Imam of Al-Azhar, a Sufi and Egyptian similarly to ‘Alī al-Khawwāṣ, visited the Vatican in May 2016, a year after Laudato si’ was published, Pope Francis used the occasion to highlight ecology as a key topic of common interest between Christianity and Islam.15 Furthermore, in preparation for the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference, known as the COP28, organized by the United Arab Emirates in Dubai (30 November–13 December 2023), the Muslim Council of Elders, in partnership with the COP28 Presidency, the United Nations Environment Programme, and the Catholic Church, organized the Global Faith Leaders COP28 Summit. Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb and Pope Francis were invited to the Summit to share their views on ecology through video conferencing. Sheikh Ahmed el-Tayeb and Pope Francis also signed a declaration endorsing the urgent need for climate action. They both stressed the need to intensify the common efforts of all religions to combat climate change.16 Patriarch Bartholomew and other Muslim and Christian religious figures of authority participated in this inter-faith event, which incorporated in its statement several ideas from Laudato si’, such as the notion of care for creation.17

Since then, many edited volumes, initiatives, and conferences have highlighted ecology as a shared ethical foundation between Islam and Christianity, leading to a profound proximity between adherents of the two faiths in terms of protecting the environment (Demiri et al. 2024; Böttigheimer and Maximilian 2023). Pope Francis touched a sensitive note among Muslims by emphasizing care for creation and calling upon the common good. Muslims have had few opportunities—or did not seize them when they did exist—to work with other religions for the sake of humanity in many Western countries. The connection that the Vatican established with a country that enjoys influence over Middle Eastern politics, economics, and intellectual debate—the United Arab Emirates and its Muslim Council of Elders—and with al-Azhar, the most authoritative Sunni institution, may bear further benefits in the future. Then, perhaps Islamic institutions might demonstrate that they are fully capable of engaging in international humanitarian endeavours.

3.3. Migration

Despite the fact that the 2015 migration crisis was not driven by religious considerations, but rather by economic factors, as well as the Arab Spring’s impact on the breakdown of Middle Eastern societies, particularly in Syria and Iraq, the majority of migrants come from Muslim countries. There is also a sizable Muslim community in Europe that, over time, alters the political, religious, and demographic structures of European societies; some Muslims may engage in criminal activity or terrorism as a result of being influenced by foreign governments or Islamist groups. Many Europeans, including some Catholics, have experienced fear and anxiety because of Muslim illegal immigration and extreme groups in Europe. Pope Francis, however, has shown a friendly stance toward migrants (which does not mean legalizing illegal migration). His outlook is in line with his prior interactions with Islam, which emphasize human fraternity and concern for the common good. It is also in line with his general dedication to helping the underprivileged. Pope Francis has expressed a humanitarian attitude towards migrants coming to Europe through a number of initiatives and statements. His most recent remarks in this regard were published in August 2024, when he stated that people who purposefully and deliberately “repel” migrants are committing a serious sin, highlighting the precarious circumstances faced by migrants who, in their attempt to reach Europe by crossing a desert or sea, risk death (see note 19).18 The Pope believes that the best way to help people who are escaping natural catastrophes, war, violence, persecution, and other calamities is to increase the number of safe and authorized entry points for migrants, while seeking “a global governance of migration based on justice, fraternity, and solidarity”.19

Usually, the media in the Middle East and Africa extensively covers and warmly views Pope Francis’ stance on migration. However, Pope Francis’ involvement with migration has a profound humanitarian significance that goes beyond the image aspect of the situation. For instance, when he visited Morocco in 2019, he met Sub-Saharan Africans living in Morocco.20 Morocco serves as a centre for thousands of Sub-Saharan African illegal immigrants to Europe, in addition to being a significant source of illegal immigration of Moroccan citizens. Like many other countries in the Muslim world, Morocco views migration mainly as an economic issue, a source of remittances, and a key contribution to Morocco’s economy.

For this reason, migration offers the Catholic Church and Islam a chance to work together. The humanitarian side of this co-operation, on the one hand, could deal with migrants who travel through Muslim countries and who are either Christian or Muslim. Humanitarian organizations, such as Catholic organizations, typically assist migrants in surviving and obtaining the minimum number of services. However, the public sentiment is opposed to illegal migrants passing through Muslim countries, and humanitarian action taken by Muslims does not go far enough in providing for migrants. On the other hand, co-operation could intensify between Muslims and Christians once Muslim immigrants arrive in Europe, as the Catholic Church and its social associations play a significant role in assisting with the immigrants’ integration. Nonetheless, there is still much that must be done by Islamic and Christian organizations to build a shared society throughout Europe.

The persecution of Christian illegal migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa who pass through North African countries is perhaps one specific issue that Muslims and Christians should work together to overcome. Catholic leaders, for instance, draw attention to the “dramatic plight” that migrants and refugees in Tunisia are facing.21 Since reciprocity is the golden rule of ethics, and Catholic organizations are committed to supporting migrants (mostly Muslims) once they reach Europe, illegal Christian migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa should also benefit from Muslim humanitarian aid, not just Muslims who typically seek assistance from mosques or Islamic associations.

3.4. Peace

In the period between 2001 and 2024, the Middle East has been plagued by wars that have worsened over the past ten years, including the invasion of Iraq in 2003, the Arab Spring and its aftermath, and the ongoing conflict in Gaza. The Middle Eastern Christian minority, which is fighting for its survival, has also been impacted by violence.22 Regional and global political and economic players wield more power than a religious leader like Pope Francis, whose moral authority, while greatly esteemed, is powerless to reverse the current trajectory of events. However, in terms of ethics and symbolism, his constant pleas for peace in the Middle East balance out the violent discourses that arise in this region and in the West that lead to the annihilation of the region’s resources and its people.

With regard to the current war in Gaza, Pope Francis called for peace and moderation in the Israel–Hamas war four days after the war started on 7 October 2023, stating that while Israel has the right to self-defence, “violence cannot help achieve a lasting peace built on justice as terrorism and extremism do not help to reach a solution to the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, but fuel hatred, violence, and revenge, causing suffering to both sides”.23 Additionally, he denounced the complete blockade of Gaza, which has resulted in several innocent casualties, declaring that “the Middle East does not need war but peace, a peace built on justice, dialogue, and the courage of fraternity” (See Note 24). The majority of Muslims probably share a commitment to this message of peace and justice, notwithstanding the existence of vindictive and opportunistic voices within Islamist organizations.

Pope Francis’ statements on the Gaza war are frequently featured on Al-Jazeera, the most watched and followed media outlet in the Middle East. Thus, Al-Jazeera covered his calls for a humanitarian ceasefire in Gaza in November 202324, his meeting with the families of Israeli and Palestinian prisoners and hostages that same month25, and his call to end the region’s spiralling violence and begin peace negotiations in April 2024.26 His views, while balanced and respectful of the rights of all peoples of the region to live in safety and harmony, attempt to address the underlying causes of the conflicts and emphasize the importance of humanity’s shared ideals as the cornerstone of regional peace.

Pope Francis’ remarks denying the ties between Islam and terrorism are another instance of his dedication to fostering peace with Islam. Many voices connected Islam to terrorism following the Islamist terrorist attacks carried out by al-Qaida and ISIS in Europe during the 2004–2016 period. In a significant statement in 2016, Pope Francis explained why he does not associate Islam with terrorism, stating that it is “not right and not true to associate Islam with violence because there is always a little fundamentalist group in any faith”.27 He added that “I do not like to talk of Islamic violence because every day, when I go through the newspapers, I see violence, this man who kills his girlfriend, another who kills his mother-in-law. And these are baptized Catholics. If I speak of Islamic violence, then I have to speak of Catholic violence” (See Note 28). This assertion supports other claims made in 201728 and 201529 that there is no intrinsic connection between terrorism and Islam. Thus, Pope Francis has raised the likelihood of working with Islam to put a stop to violence, by advocating a just and trustworthy attitude toward Muslims.

4. Muslim Reactions to Pope Francis

Muslim responses to Pope Francis come from a variety of intellectual, political, and theological backgrounds. However, I only consider here scholarly or intellectual well-reasoned and insightful responses. I do not take into account the diplomatic discourse or compliments that religious or political figures with institutional ties make while meeting or greeting the Pope. In order to give a more representative picture of Muslim responses to Pope Francis, I have selected cases from both Europe and the Middle East.

4.1. Europe

A well-known Muslim scholar of Indian descent who lived in the UK, Ataullah Siddiqui (1954–2020), offers one articulate response to Pope Francis’ attempts to engage with Islam. Siddiqi responds to Pope Francis in two ways. First, he praises the Pope’s commitment to justice and dignity, stating that there are common values between Islam and Christianity, as they reject the current economic system, which transfers wealth from the poor to the rich and permits only a small number of people to cross international borders, thus creating a vast number of mass poor people worldwide (Siddiqui 2018, p. 179). Siddiqui believes that oppressive politics and consumerist practises have dehumanized the majority of the poor. In a world that begs for more justice, he also claims that Muslims and Christians should review their theologies and look for a meaningful “co-witness”. Secondly, he poses the question of whether the Prophet Muḥammad will be recognized by the Catholic Church as part of the prophetic lineage that stretches back through the Old Testament. He hopes that the Church will address the issue of unwarranted attacks on the Prophet Muḥammad, and argues that a third Vatican Council is not necessary to reach this goal (Siddiqui 2018, p. 178).

Siddiqui commends Pope Francis for being a leading voice in favour of equity and human dignity. Given that the majority of Muslims and many Catholics in Africa and South America are among the “mass poor” he describes, this could indeed be a crucial area of ethical reflection and action between Islam and Christianity. Islam and Christianity can collaborate in some capacity in order to foster social peace in the world. A lack of mutual theological recognition, however, seemed to irritate Siddiqui (and other traditionalist Muslim scholars). He believed that while Islam acknowledges Jesus as a unique figure of sainthood, Christianity has not yet acknowledged the Prophet Muḥammad. This may just be a symbolic issue, but Muslims in the West, in particular, see a difficulty with this lack of recognition, which is essential for a positive relationship between Islam and the Catholic Church, in light of attacks on this symbol of Islam in Europe (since the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy). Theological issues typically stand in the way of ethical co-operation, and both sides have demands for recognition that the other might find irrelevant.

Two Muslim scholars, Salih Yucel (from Turkey but living in Australia) and Muhammad Tahir (who lives in Pakistan), have argued, with regard to Pope Francis’ dialogue initiatives with Muslims, that since there are more similarities between Catholic and Muslim discourse on ethics than on theology, Islam and the Catholic Church ought to focus on ethics, in order to promote world peace (Yucel and Tahir 2021, p. 64). The theological divide between Islam and Catholicism, especially, makes productive discussion challenging (Yucel and Tahir 2021, p. 63). An allegorical or metaphorical reading of religious narratives may indicate ethical precepts that are possibly universal. Thus, I wonder if this discrepancy in theology results from a literal or traditionalist interpretation of scripture. Just as the widespread acceptance of Jesus in the Quran does not stop some Muslims from using violence against Christians, the Catholic Church’s acknowledgment of the Prophet Muḥammad by itself will not be sufficient to allay any animosity that some people may have against Islam. However, a positive attitude toward one another permits a more educated approach to the other’s faith and scripture, and theology provides a gateway to contemplate the highest ethical teachings of a particular religion. Thus, ethics and theology might provide interchangeable spaces for shared contemplation.

4.2. The Middle East

Yūsuf ‘Inād Zāmil and Suhā Yūnus Ismā‘īl, two Muslim intellectuals from Iraq (Wāsiṭ), offer an insightful response to Pope Francis’ visit to Iraq in 2021. For them, Pope Francis acted as a tolerance educator, and they argue that the purpose of his visit to Iraq was to show solidarity for the few remaining Christians and other minorities in the country, as well as to promote tolerance amongst all religions and ethnic groups, both globally and within Iraq (Zāmil and Ismā‘īl 2021, p. 34). In their view, “negative social structure traits like the rise of senseless violence, exclusion, conflict, and fanaticism occur when the tolerance principle originating from the heavenly religions is lacking” (Zāmil and Ismā‘īl 2021, p. 34). Endorsing a self-critical stance, they add that “certain Arab and Islamic societies, particularly in Iraq, exhibit these traits and Pope Francis’ visit renewed tolerance in Iraqi society, raising awareness of the necessity of ending the cycle of bloodshed” (Zāmil and Ismā‘īl 2021, p. 34). They also maintain that tolerance is an ethical framework, anchored in Christianity and Islam, that governs people’s behaviour, involving acceptance of others, respect for their beliefs and diversity, national reconciliation, social harmony between Muslims and other religions, and a decrease in ethnic conflicts (Zāmil and Ismā‘īl 2021, p. 42). They conclude that Pope Francis gave a lesson in tolerance to all sects and ethnic groups in order to convey to the people of Iraq the importance of tolerance and the steps that should be taken to restore a society of tolerance (through discussion and acceptance of difference) (Zāmil and Ismā‘īl 2021, p. 42).

The Iraqi context helps to explain why Pope Francis’ message has been so warmly received by Zāmil and Ismā‘īl. Particularly since the American invasion of the country in 2003, although there had previously been religious and ethnic violence in Iraq, sectarianism (the Sunni–Shii conflict), ethnic conflict (Kurds vs. Arabs), and the persecution of minorities, particularly Christians, have devastated the country in the last 20 years. Many religious leaders were involved in supporting one faction over another, and religious institutions played a significant role in the violent conflicts in Iraq. Certain religious ideologies, both Sunni and Shii, contributed to the nation’s social collapse and violence. Pope Francis, therefore, reminded Iraqis of the way in which religion ought to reclaim its intended role as a means of bringing about peace.

Similar ideas were voiced by ‘Abd al-Ḥalīm ‘Abd al-Ḥāfiẓ Khālid, an Islamic scholar from Basra in Iraq and a well-known Sunni voice of dialogue and moderation in his country, who maintains that extremism, religious intolerance, division, and national intolerance plague humanity, leading to the scourge of wars and devastation, particularly in Iraq and the Middle East (Khālid 2023, p. 249). He sees Pope Francis’ visit to Iraq as a support for dialogue, acceptance of others, peaceful coexistence, joint co-operation, and respect for the right and freedom of others to practice their religion, suggesting the establishment of measures of tolerance and peaceful coexistence among the various communities of Iraqi society, regardless of their ethnic background or political identity (Khālid 2023, p. 249).

Finally, ‘Izz al-Dīn ‘Ināya, a prominent Muslim Tunisian thinker on religious dialogue and relations with Christianity, sees Pope Francis as a social critic who advocates against wealth and selfishness, defends the underprivileged, and attacks social inequalities. Pope Francis is celebrated for adopting an austere lifestyle, bending down to wash inmates’ feet, travelling to the island of Lampedusa to pray for the souls of shipwrecked immigrants, and engaging in other remarkable acts that further his theology of the underprivileged and the common people (‘Ināya 2016, p. 142). The same author points out that Pope Francis, in his encyclical Laudato si’, expresses concern for the environment, and states that he views the environmental crisis as an anthropological one that is closely related to the pattern of development and, consequently, the structural elements of an economy that disregards the values of man and his dignity (‘Ināya 2016, p. 143). ‘Ināya concurs with Pope Francis’ remarks regarding the financial crisis, stating that it may be summed up as a rejection of humanity, and that injustices in society and the worship of money are more likely to harbour social evils than personal failings (‘Ināya 2016, p. 143). Although he acknowledges that the Pope’s sermons, letters, and instructions often centre around the themes of promoting justice, opposing wealth accumulation, and fighting poverty, he also notes that, given the Vatican’s financial resources, moving beyond mere condemnation to actual action is not a simple task (‘Ināya 2016, p. 144).

The Muslim responses we examined so far react to Pope Francis’ words and initiatives around two main issues. On the one hand, they highlight Pope Francis’ efforts to advance social justice, and his critique of the current economic system and its consequences for the environment, the global south, and poverty. Muslim intellectuals think that social injustice might be addressed by co-operation between Islam and the Catholic Church. On the other hand, Muslim scholars view Pope Francis as a unique religious voice that promotes tolerance, a quality that is mostly lacking in the Middle East (this is also true in many Western countries). These reactions reflect the idea that religions today are called on to exert more ethical efforts to improve the lives of minorities and the underprivileged, and to teach tolerance and peace.

5. Violence in the Middle East and Limits to the Ethics of Recognition

Today’s political climate in the Middle East places major limitations on the ethics of recognition. Indeed, faith in shared good intentions and constructive endeavours has been successfully restored thanks to the efforts of Pope Francis and Muslim religious leaders in the Middle East. However, it is challenging to determine whether these initiatives can assist us in determining what is likely to be improvable in the Middle East, given the backdrop of intense bellicism in the region. For a start, religions, including Islam (both Sunni and Shii) and Christianity, can and should focus on creating an inclusive state in which all citizens are equally entitled to dignity and recognition. In light of the current circumstances in the Middle East, it is not only required to go beyond an encounter that is clearly fascinating, but also, there is a need for recognition to be carried to a more significant level. The majority of Middle Eastern states have not been inclusive in a way that welcomes all of their citizens regardless of their creed, ethnicity, history, or communities, for whom policies should be made equitably. The majority of the states have decided to be built on exclusive assets of power, embracing securitization to ensure that the others do not assert their rights. Many communities, faiths, and individuals have abandoned state loyalty and rejected state identities in favour of transnational, ethnic, or religious identities that seek to overthrow national states, which are related to (and in some cases even caused by) exclusive states.

As a result of their exclusivity, states in the Middle East are therefore structurally vulnerable to conflict. This vulnerability can be exacerbated by foreign states or armed organizations using various religious leaders and groups. The obvious answer to this challenge is to integrate religious plurality into state ideals and secularize politics. Furthermore, faiths can instruct respect for others, the need for coexistence, and devotion to the state and nation through their ethical teachings. Religions themselves, however, are susceptible to being used as political tools, or certain religious leaders can be tempted to instrumentalize politics. This indicates that recognition ethics can be successful inasmuch as the processes of internal politics and society are based on compromise. Beyond recognition ethics, the Middle East urgently needs compromise politics within all states above all else.

6. Conclusions

No other Christian leader has ever been able to retain such a positive reputation and elicit such favourable responses throughout the Muslim world as Pope Francis has. His multiple trips to the Middle East have produced opportunities for interaction and recognition that were absent in the decades post-2001. Pope Francis’ dedication to ethical concerns, such as human brotherhood, ecology, migration, and peace, has won him sympathetic ears among religious leaders in the Middle East, particularly in Iraq, Egypt, and the Gulf states. Scholarly responses from Muslims to Pope Francis demonstrate his influence on the perception of social justice and tolerance around the world. Thus, he has succeeded in forging an ethical encounter to overcome violence and inequality beyond reviving religious diplomacy and dialogue with Islam.

This article argued—and provided evidence in support of the argument—that Pope Francis’ openings and recognition-extending visits to the Muslim world went beyond religious diplomacy and branding. Instead, they touched on ethical issues that confront the Muslim world today, particularly dignity, peace, and tolerance, which found a supportive environment among various Muslim religious leaders. Muslim responses also demonstrate a sincere interest in the content and consistency of Pope Francis’ messages. Overall, our main conclusion is that Pope Francis, by upholding an ethics of recognition towards Muslims in a profound and consistent manner, was acknowledged as a sincere and authoritative voice for peace. Nevertheless, the ethics of recognition are ineffective without the politics of compromise.