Historical Traceability, Diverse Development, and Spatial Construction of Religious Culture in Macau

Abstract

This study delves into the profound impact and significance of religious culture on the urban spatial configuration and local cultural essence of Macau amidst contemporary societal transformations. Emphasis is placed on how religious sites undergo functional reshaping and role redefinition within the urban fabric, thereby influencing residents’ quality of life, cityscape, and cultural identity. Adopting a spatial anthropological lens, this research employs a multitude of methodologies including city walking, participatory observation, and historical analysis to investigate the spatial configurations and developmental trajectories of Macau’s diverse religious sites and their immediate environments. The aim is to unearth the historical drivers behind the formation and dissemination of religious culture in Macau and to elucidate its intricate interactions with urban space. The findings reveal that religious sites in Macau not only physically delineate unique urban spatial patterns but also serve as vital hubs for fostering local cultural cohesion and weaving social networks through routine religious practices, community engagements, and a plethora of festive and ritualistic events. The pervasive influence of these sites extends across multiple domains of society, culture, and economy, playing a pivotal role in maintaining regional stability and harmony, enriching cultural diversity, and propelling socioeconomic transformation.

1. Introduction

1.1. Research Background

The essence of religion lies in its connection to the “sacred”—not merely supernatural beings or deities, but also objects and concepts deemed special, inviolable, and profoundly valuable by societal groups (Boudon 1999). Space plays a pivotal role in materializing and perpetuating ideologies and beliefs (Knott 2015). Religious evolution has not only molded urban spatial configurations, architectural aesthetics, and the humanistic milieu but has also profoundly influenced the establishment of social order, collective identity, and the sustenance of spiritual life within urban communities through its belief systems, rituals, and ethical norms (Chivallon 2001). Simultaneously, the dynamic urban evolution continuously feeds back into and shapes the inheritance and innovation of religious culture. This symbiotic relationship has forged a rich and multifaceted cultural landscape (Kaymaz 2013). Macau, exemplary in its amalgamation of Chinese and Western cultures, showcases a distinctively diverse, inclusive, and integrated religious landscape, honed over 400 years of historical sedimentation (Ma and Chen 2023). On the one hand, traditional Chinese religious practices and folklore are deeply ingrained in the daily lives of Macau’s populace; on the other, the lasting impression of Portuguese colonial influence has facilitated Catholicism’s widespread dissemination, leaving an indelible mark.

Macau, as a significant port in the coastal region of southern China, has naturally assimilated Chinese religious cultures such as Taoism, Buddhism, and folklore since the Ming Dynasty, thereby establishing the foundations of Chinese religious culture in the region (Cheng 1999). Following the mid-16th century, with the Portuguese acquiring residency rights in Macau and progressively setting up trading posts, Western Catholic culture was introduced to the region (Wei 2014). Consequently, religious buildings proliferated in Macau, and Catholicism emerged as the predominant faith among European immigrants. Moreover, through missionary endeavors, it influenced some of Macau’s indigenous population, fostering a coexistence of Eastern and Western religions. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, Macau experienced an exchange, conflict, and amalgamation of diverse religious cultures. Catholicism took hold in the local society through various means including education, healthcare, and social services, and interacted with Confucian ethics, Buddhist philosophy, and indigenous folklore, cultivating a distinctive Catholic culture unique to Macau (Hao 2011). Additionally, Protestantism gradually penetrated Macau in recent times, coexisting peacefully with the preexisting religious system. Since Macau’s return to China in the 20th century, the freedom of religious belief has been further upheld, enabling multiple religions to coexist harmoniously and evolve (Chan 2019). The preservation and restoration of conventional temples, coupled with the emergence of numerous newly established religious sites, have enriched Macao’s religious landscape. Furthermore, the effective management and safeguarding of numerous religious cultural heritages, encompassing World Cultural Heritage sites, by the Macau government, have facilitated the continuation and renewal of religious culture in Macao amidst globalizations.

Based on this premise, the present article aims to investigate “How religious sites in Macau shape the city’s social structure and cultural identity through their spatial practices?” To delve deeper into this core inquiry, the following sub-questions are posed for discussion: How has Macau evolved to foster a multiplicity of religious cultures? How does the spatial configuration of diverse religious sites in Macau mirror the city’s cultural pluralism, and how does it facilitate social networks and cultural identity formation within the community? How do religious sites’ functions adapt and evolve alongside societal shifts? Through an exhaustive analysis of the historical genesis of Macau’s religious culture, the anthropogenic landscape of its multifaceted development, and its constructive role in shaping urban space, this study offers substantial theoretical and empirical insights into cultural interchange and reciprocal learning, community cohesion, and identity construction in the era of globalization.

1.2. Literature Review

Focusing on the pertinent literature centered on the theme of religious culture in Macau, it is evident that research spans multiple disciplines, including history, religious studies, and sociology. This research predominantly employs methodologies such as literature reviews, fieldwork, and case studies to conduct a comprehensive and meticulous examination of the evolution of religions in Macau and their dynamic interplay with societal changes. For instance, several scholars have historically investigated the eastward expansion of Catholicism during the Ming and Qing dynasties, as well as the perpetuation and transformation of Mazu’s belief in Macau. These studies have provided profound insights into the harmonious coexistence of Catholicism, Buddhism, Taoism, and folklore in the distinctive region of Macau, giving rise to a rich and diverse religious tapestry and cultural phenomenon (Cheng 1999; Huang et al. 2023; Eh 2017). Some scholars have dedicated their attention to the process of localization of Catholicism in Macau, alongside the alterations and progressions in religious culture triggered by shifts in religious policies during the European colonial era and after Macau’s return, as evidenced through extensive field investigations and case studies (Chen 2017; Laliberté 2022; Young 2013). Concurrently, other researchers have delved into the significant contributions of various religious edifices in Macau, highlighting their role in reflecting the city’s historical and cultural identity, shaping its urban scape, and fostering community cohesion (Ly and Tan 2023; Nishiyama 2001; Hao 2011). In summary, contemporary academic research on the religious and cultural phenomena of Macau has yielded substantial analytical insights within their respective fields, predominantly emphasizing the interpretation of the underlying meanings and historical backgrounds of Macau’s religious culture. Nonetheless, existing studies appear to have overlooked the examination of the evolving patterns and influential mechanisms of Macau’s religious culture amidst modern societal transformations from a dynamic viewpoint, particularly its pivotal function in the creation of urban spaces and the cultivation of a sense of place. In essence, there remains a noticeable lack of systematic focus and discourse on how religious culture adapts and evolves alongside societal progression, and its subsequent involvement in the profound structures of contemporary urban development and social life.

The construction of urban space is a multifaceted process that profoundly impacts residents’ quality of life, community development trajectories, and the broader cultural, economic, and social fabric of the city (Pacione 2009). Religious sites, as dual repositories of material culture and spiritual symbolism, constitute a significant medium for the spatial manifestation of religious culture. Essentially, they bridge the divine and the mundane (Agyekum and Newbold 2016). By constructing sacred spaces and reinterpreting urban public space functionality, these sites not only physically embody religious beliefs but also deeply resonate with users’ emotional, spiritual, and psychological needs. Religious sites are pivotal in daily rituals and community interactions. Through these practices, social bonds among diverse groups are forged and reinforced, fostering a distinct local cultural ambiance with a profound sense of identity (Andrew 2023). In Japan, shrines and temples draw a wide array of believers and serve as community hubs (Hyeonjeong 2008). Similarly, in Thailand, Buddhist temples are central to religious rites like meditation and chanting, doubling as hubs for education, charity, and social services (Satasut 2015). In Italy, historic religious buildings are spiritual havens for Catholics and venues for cultural events, attracting global visitors (Kotler 2001). This spatial interplay between the divine and the human is a cross-cultural and regional research focal point. Religious sites are not just spiritual havens but also integral to the urban landscape, where the secular and sacred coexist. As religious sites increasingly integrate into the urban fabric, they offer a unique perspective for interpreting the harmonious coexistence of secularism and religiosity in cities. This provides a valuable lens for exploring the evolution of religious culture in the modern urban context. Nevertheless, religious culture faces growing marginalization and dissolution risks, leading to concerning losses of cultural and historical heritage (Lyons-Padilla et al. 2015; McGuire 2007; Torri 2019). Therefore, this study aims to explore the interplay between religious culture and urban space construction within social development, adopting a spatial anthropology perspective. Using Macau as a case study, we seek to address gaps in religious culture research and unveil the profound meanings embedded in contemporary urban spaces and local cultures.

1.3. Problem Statement and Research Method

Macau, as a melting pot of religions, not only shelters Christianity, including Catholicism and Protestantism, but also harbors a myriad of belief systems such as Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Hinduism, and the Baha’i Faith. Each religious tradition boasts its devoted followers and designated places of worship, exemplified by the serene Buddhist Guan Yin Lotus Garden, the venerable Taoist Mazu Temple, and the graceful Islamic Mosque. Collectively, these sacred spaces constitute a distinctive and symbolic urban fabric unique to Macau. This vibrant city showcases not just a singular religious monument, but a rich tapestry of worship areas that spatially delineate Macau’s urban identity and cultural traits, embodying the historical narrative behind the emergence and dissemination of its religious diversity.

In its dealings with various religions, the Macau government rigorously adheres to the principle of freedom of religious belief, as stipulated in the Chinese Constitution and the Basic Law of the Macau Special Administrative Region. The government resolutely respects and effectively safeguards every citizen’s entitlement to religious freedom, refrains from interfering in the internal affairs of religious organizations, and actively backs religious communities in lawfully pursuing their activities. Furthermore, the Macau government places immense importance on preserving religious cultural heritage and is passionately engaged in academic exploration and promotion of religious culture. This endeavor aims to excavate, preserve, and disseminate the distinctive value and historical significance of each religious tradition, thereby fostering harmonious coexistence and development between religion and society. Despite the profound influence wielded by the Portuguese during their extended governance of Macau, their imprint did not overshadow the cultural mosaic. This is exemplified by the respectful coexistence cultivated during the unique intersection of Chinese and Western cultures in Macau (Khan 2014). Within this intricate cultural ecosystem, Western religious culture gradually filtered in and adapted through church construction, liturgies, and educational endeavors, ultimately merging with the indigenous Eastern religious culture to forge Macau’s distinctive and multifaceted religious topography.

The urban spatial structure of Macau is predominantly shaped by the proliferation of diverse religious cultures. The evolution of churches and their adjacent areas illustrates how religious landmarks physically delineate urban spaces and unveil the influence of religious practices on community development, public life, and the formation of local cultural identity. More specifically, churches serve not only as public venues for residents to participate in religious rituals and community interactions but are also intimately intertwined with the lifestyle, values, and social networks of Macau’s populace through traditional festivals and the perpetuation of religious customs. This plays a pivotal role in fostering and catalyzing the development of local culture.

Therefore, this study undertakes an in-depth exploration centered around the core question: “How do religious sites in Macau influence the city’s social structure and cultural identity through their spatial practices?” Firstly, it thoroughly analyzes the formative factors and dissemination pathways of religious culture in Macau, aiming to elucidate how religion has historically emerged as a significant force in shaping community identity and cultural diversity. Secondly, it methodically investigates how Macau’s urban spatial structure interacts with and molds the cultural landscape shaped by diverse religious cultures, illustrating how the synergy between urban planning and religious spaces fosters cultural coexistence and social harmony. Finally, it comprehensively evaluates the tangible impact and profound implications of religious culture on Macau’s urban social transformations and the construction of local cultural spaces, exploring the role of religion in cultivating distinctive urban cultural traits, community cultural identity, and social cohesion within the context of globalization.

Based on the issues, this study predominantly utilizes the city walks research methodology (W. Wang 2024) to empirically investigate the religious sites present in Macau, alongside their adjacent environments and community composition. Macau, spanning approximately 33.3 square kilometers, comprises four geographical regions: the Macau Peninsula, Taipa Island, Coloane Island, and the Cotai Strip. Administratively, Macau employs a unique division system termed “parishes,” consisting of seven parishes, with an unspecified additional area not designated within a parish boundary. This study concentrates on examining the interplay between religious culture and urban space in Macau, encompassing the entirety of the Macau Peninsula, Taipa Island, and Coloane Island (Figure 1).

Methodologically, this study employs city walking, participatory observation, and historical data analysis to intuitively perceive and deeply analyze the spatial characteristics of religious sites and their intertwined relationship with people’s daily behaviors by personally experiencing urban spaces. City walking, as a qualitative research method, involves purposefully traversing various religious locations and adjacent communities on the Macau Peninsula, Taipa Island, and Coloane Island, thereby directly observing the distribution, scale, form, and integration of religious buildings with their surrounding environment from a pedestrian’s perspective. The design of the walking routes considers factors such as different religious types, ages, scales, and influences, aiming to capture the spatial features and distribution patterns of religious landscapes comprehensively and systematically. During these walks, the research team maintains detailed documentation of the geographical location, architectural style, usage status, and community environment of the religious sites, preserving first-hand information in various formats, including text, photographs, and sketches.

Throughout the fieldwork, the research team not only records observations as bystanders but also actively engages in daily activities related to religious sites, such as attending religious ceremonies, conversing with believers and community members, and observing community life scenes. This “immersive” research approach aids in developing a profound understanding of how religious sites are utilized in daily life and how they influence, and are influenced by, the social structure, cultural traditions, and interpersonal communication patterns within the community. Through participatory observation, researchers can capture non-verbal, contextual, and nuanced social interaction processes, which are often elusive in documentation or second-hand accounts. By combining these methodologies, this study comprehensively and multidimensionally explores how religious culture constructs meaning, shapes identity, sustains communities, and influences urban transformations within urban spaces, progressing from the micro to the macro, the static to the dynamic, and from material space to social behavior. This provides substantial empirical evidence and theoretical insights into the intricate relationship between religious culture and urban space in Macau.

Preliminary findings indicate that these religious spaces serve not only as significant vessels for conducting ceremonies and preserving beliefs but also play a pivotal role in shaping the formation and evolution of urban spaces. They bridge the past and present through physical spaces, fostering the continuation of social memory and the construction of local identity. On a micro level, they influence community activity patterns, residential social networks, and regional economic and cultural vitality.

2. Historical Origin: The Formation and Spread of Religious Belief in Macau

This section delves into the formative factors and dissemination pathways of religious culture in Macau, elucidating how religion has historically played a pivotal role in shaping community identity and fostering cultural diversity. It underscores Macau’s distinctiveness as a melting pot of Eastern and Western religious cultures, offering a critical lens into this unique intersection. Tracing the emergence of Zen Buddhism and Mazu belief during the Tang and Song dynasties, the section explores the interplay and adaptation between Catholicism and indigenous religious cultures during the Portuguese colonial era, culminating in the contemporary era of religious amalgamation and preservation. The evolution of religious culture in Macau profoundly illustrates the dynamic equilibrium between competition and coexistence among disparate civilizations. Furthermore, it highlights how religion serves as a catalyst for shaping social structures and enriching cultural identity. While cultural exchanges and integrations foster diversity and symbiosis, the section cautions against potential trends towards cultural homogenization and inequality. In Macau, religion transcends mere faith practice, emerging as a cultural bridge that connects past and present, East, and West. It promotes diverse integration and harmonious development within Macau society, enabling continuous exploration and reinforcement of local cultural identity in the context of globalization.

2.1. Before Portuguese Colonization: Religious Pluralism of Origin and Restricted Syncretism

During the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism occupied a prominent position in the Macau region (Jia 2018). At that time, Zen Master Zhenjiao actively disseminated Buddhist culture in the Xiangshan County area, encompassing today’s Zhongshan, Zhuhai, and Macau. According to historical archives, the earliest documented Buddhist landmarks in Macau are two esteemed temples: Lianfeng Temple and Puji Chan Yuan (also known as Guan Yin Tang) (Fan 1999). As stated in the “Pu Tong Ta Zhi”, Puji Chan Yuan was founded in Macau by Monk Xunzhi in 1623. Throughout the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty (mid-16th century), Macau, serving as a significant international trade port, exhibited a religious landscape predominantly influenced by Buddhism, Taoism, and local folklore beliefs (Po and Meng 2013). Notably, due to the tight correlation between the belief in Mazu and marine economic endeavors, the establishment of the Mazu Pavilion by Fujian immigrants in Macau further enriched the region’s religious culture. It is worth mentioning that the veneration of Mazu in Macau is intertwined with Buddhism. Mazu Pavilion honors not just Mazu, the goddess of the sea, but also pays tribute to Buddhist deities such as Guan Yin Bodhisattva and Di Zang Wang Bodhisattva. Consequently, this shrine is also known as Zhengjue Chan Lin and has remained under the longstanding stewardship of Puji Chan Yuan. In the early 16th century, Catholic missionaries, including Francis Xavier, endeavored to introduce religious culture into mainland China through Macau (Perdue 2015). However, before Portugal acquired legal residency rights in Macau, the Ming government maintained a highly conservative approach towards foreign religions. They imposed rigid maritime prohibitions to curtail the influx of foreigners and strictly supervised interactions between foreigners and locals in China (Li 2010). This posed significant challenges for missionaries to conduct extensive evangelical work locally. Simultaneously, the entrenched indigenous beliefs in Chinese society, such as Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, hindered the widespread comprehension and acceptance of Christian doctrines among the general populace in the short term. Consequently, Christianity struggled to establish a firm social footing in the local community, and its influence paled in comparison to indigenous religions.

The deep-rooted presence of Buddhism and the emergence of Mazu belief in Macau unveil the diverse origins of religious culture in the region. Nonetheless, during this era, despite indications of amalgamation between Buddhism and Mazu belief, the exclusionary policies toward Catholicism, exemplified by the Ming government’s prohibition on maritime trade, reflect early constraints on religious diversity. Consequently, this not only hindered the dissemination of foreign religions but also potentially impeded the innovation and cross-cultural exchanges within local religious communities.

2.2. Period of Portuguese Colonial Influence: Localization and Cultural Adaptation of Catholicism

In 1557, following Portugal’s official acquisition of legal residency rights in Macau through a formal agreement, Western religions, Catholicism in particular, gradually emerged as a significant and influential force in the Macau region (Ljungstedt 1832). During this period, Macau essentially functioned as a pivotal bridge between Eastern and Western civilizations, providing European missionaries with a strategic foothold for penetrating and promoting Christian faith in mainland China and the broader Far East. In 1594, the Jesuits founded the College of Saint Paul in Macau. This institution not only played a pivotal educational role in training missionaries for the local and East Asian regions but also facilitated the widespread dissemination and deep localization of Catholicism in East Asia through its rigorous knowledge system, extensive cross-cultural exchange activities, and profound engagement with local social life (Pinheiro et al. 2005). The renowned missionary Matteo Ricci embarked from the College of Saint Paul, ventured deep into the heart of China, and successfully integrated Catholic doctrine with traditional Chinese culture through an open and inclusive mindset, adopting a flexible missionary strategy tailored to local customs. This had a profound impact on social thought during the Ming and Qing dynasties (Laven 2011). Meanwhile, the Cathedral of Saint Paul, erected in 1603 along with its affiliated college, serves as a tangible testament to the amalgamation of Chinese and Western cultures. Michele Ruggieri, among the earliest Jesuit missionaries to arrive in China, not only translated the Bible into Chinese but also compiled the first Portuguese Chinese dictionary. Throughout his missionary work in Macau and Guangdong, he endeavored to align Catholic doctrine with Confucian ethics, presenting Catholic teachings in a manner consonant with Confucian moral values (Liu 2011). Adam Schall von Bell further advanced this cross-cultural dialogue. While heading the Imperial Observatory in Beijing, he successfully revised the “Chongzhen Calendar,” seamlessly integrating traditional Chinese calendrics with cutting-edge European astronomical achievements of that time. This provides invaluable insights for future generations to comprehend religious dissemination and cultural amalgamation (Truong 2024).

Following the Portuguese colonization of Macau, the introduction of Catholicism and the subsequent establishment of Jesuit educational institutions in the region facilitated the wide dissemination and profound localization of the Catholic faith. While this process underscores the positive facets of cultural adaptation and integration, as exemplified by the contributions of Matteo Ricci and Adam Schall von Bell, it also gives rise to concerns regarding cultural hegemony. The ‘packaging’ of education and culture to aid adaptation might obfuscate the assimilation of indigenous beliefs, ultimately undermining the autonomy of local cultural identities.

2.3. Period of Integration and Interaction between Eastern and Western Religions: The Complexity of Cultural Symbiosis and Identity

Macau, a territory that has belonged to China since ancient times, boasts a profound cultural heritage deeply rooted in over two thousand years of Chinese culture. Despite the inevitable influence of foreign cultural systems and elements on Macau’s sociocultural structure during the colonial period in modern history, this did not undermine the predominant role of traditional Chinese culture in Macau society. Moreover, it did not erase the Chinese identity of most of its residents or the essentially Chinese core of Macau’s humanistic spirit. Conversely, numerous foreigners who arrived in Macau not only accepted its multicultural environment but were also profoundly influenced by their exposure to and integration with Chinese culture. They adopted Chinese religions like Buddhism and Taoism, and widely embraced traditional Chinese concepts such as auspicious date selection and feng shui (Law 2012). Simultaneously, the Chinese actively sought and incorporated new ideas and perspectives from foreign cultures, collaboratively shaping Macau into a multicultural religious space where Eastern and Western cultures coexist harmoniously. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, several Buddhist temples and Taoist shrines in Macau integrated Western architectural elements during their construction or renovation. For instance, the Gothic tracery adorning the Puji Chan Yuan temple illustrates Macau society’s openness and willingness to embrace diverse cultures. Additionally, Catholicism practically assimilated Eastern cultural elements, such as the incorporation of lunar festivals and Chinese folk customs into its church activities. There even emerged a hybrid cultural phenomenon labeled “Catholicism-Confucianism”, grounded in Confucian ethics (Goldstein et al. 1991). During this era, innovations in religious rituals, the mutual influence of church and temple architectural styles, and the blending of believers’ daily customs all contributed to fostering a harmonious and inclusive religious environment in Macau. Nonetheless, it is worth questioning whether this integration is truly equitable. Are both foreign and local religious cultures accorded equal attention and respect within these spaces? Furthermore, while cultural exchanges between foreigners and locals undoubtedly foster mutual understanding and acceptance, do they also implicitly carry the risk of cultural homogenization and a dilution of distinct identities? These are questions that remain unanswered.

2.4. Modern Transformation and Protection Period: The Double-Edged Sword of Cultural Heritage and Tourism

Since the beginning of the 20th century, and particularly since China resumed sovereignty over Macau in 1999, the Macau government has steadfastly adhered to the principle of freedom of religious belief, respecting and safeguarding the legitimate rights and interests of diverse religious groups (L. Wang 1999). To better preserve and promote Macau’s rich religious and cultural heritage, the government has implemented a range of substantial protection measures. For instance, in 2005, the “Historic Centre of Macau” was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (Dewar et al. 2012), encompassing several emblematic religious buildings such as the Seminary and the Sanctuary of St. Joseph, as well as St. Lawrence’s Church. These initiatives effectively conserve the religious diversity in Macau and elevate the city’s cultural tourism value. Furthermore, the Macau government annually organizes events like the Mazu Cultural Tourism Festival and religious processions, vividly illustrating the harmonious coexistence of various religions within Macau society. These efforts enable Macau’s religious culture to persist and evolve in the modern era, continuously fulfilling a distinctive role in connecting the past with the present and bridging Eastern and Western civilizations.

Following Macau’s return, the government’s efforts in protecting and utilizing religious heritage, exemplified by the certification of World Cultural Heritage sites, have undoubtedly enriched the region’s cultural value. Nevertheless, it raises concerns whether the promotion of tourism might result in the over-commercialization of religious landmarks, potentially undermining their spiritual significance and transforming them solely into tourist destinations, as evidenced by events like holy image processions. Furthermore, striking a balance between preservation and exploitation remains elusive. The challenge persists in finding ways to foster economic growth without compromising the inherent spiritual value of these religious landmarks.

3. Diversified Development in Humanistic Landscapes: Churches, Temples, and Monasteries

As an international micro-city, Macau’s religious spaces exhibit diverse development, reflecting its profound historical depth and distinctive urban culture. The distribution of religious buildings and sites is significantly influenced by the dual imprint of Portuguese colonial culture and Chinese indigenous traditions. Through early missionary endeavors, Catholicism established a multitude of churches in Macau, thereby shaping not only the city’s predominant architectural aesthetic but also its urban spatial configuration. This has resulted in a unique urban landscape where Mediterranean-inspired architecture harmoniously blends with Eastern urban fabrics. Simultaneously, Macau’s indigenous Buddhism, Taoism, and folkloric beliefs coexist, giving rise to a proliferation of temples and monasteries. These religious spaces are integrally linked to daily life and seamlessly integrated into Macau’s orderly urban grid. They serve as a mirror to the social organization of various faith communities and underscore Macau society’s inclusivity and multicultural essence. Amidst societal shifts and modernization, the roles and significance of religious spaces in Macau are undergoing constant expansion and transformation. On the one hand, religious structures have attained the status of world cultural heritage, exerting a profound influence on Macau’s tourism sector and city branding. On the other hand, they function as hubs for community gatherings, catering to the spiritual needs of the faithful. Through diverse avenues such as education, philanthropy, and social services, these religious spaces contribute to shaping urban social life, further bolstering Macau’s reputation as an international city rich in history and unique cultural allure.

3.1. Churches in Macau

Early missionaries played a pivotal role in disseminating religious culture by establishing churches. These churches not only functioned as hubs for religious rites and educational endeavors but also profoundly influenced Macau’s urban spatial configuration. The architectural designs of these churches were inspired by prevailing European styles of the era, particularly the Baroque and Neoclassical aesthetics. Baroque architecture, renowned for its extravagance, dynamism, and theatricality, embodies the majesty and authority inherent to the church. This style adeptly articulates religious sentiments and narratives through intricate ornamentation and sculptures, aligning with the ecclesiastical objective of attracting followers and bolstering faith through impressive ecclesiastical architecture. Conversely, Neoclassicism advocates a revival of ancient Greek and Roman architectural principles, emphasizing proportion, symmetry, and order, thereby exhibiting the elegance of rationality and harmony. For instance, the ruins of St. Paul’s Cathedral in Macau, a paragon of Baroque design, exude the grandeur and intricate detailing characteristic of the style, despite only its facade remaining intact. The Cathedral of the Nativity of Our Lady and St. Anthony’s Church, while retaining traditional European Neoclassical architectural traits, seamlessly integrate local Macau and other cultural motifs into their designs, making them integral components of Macau’s rich and diverse cultural heritage (Figure 2).

The spatial distribution of churches reflects the delicate layout of early Portuguese colonists and missionaries in urban planning and cultural dissemination. This layout strategy balances geographical strategic significance with residents’ living needs, highlighting the effectiveness of Catholic evangelization, and reflecting Macau’s unique urban identity as a cultural melting pot of the East and West (Figure 3). Specifically, in terms of geographical strategy, church locations were carefully chosen based on their proximity to vital transportation routes and commercial centers. For instance, St. Dominic’s Church, situated in the heart of Senado Square, has historically been a pivotal hub for transportation and commerce on the Macau Peninsula. Such a location facilitates the gathering of believers and the conduct of religious activities, reinforcing Catholicism’s influence and presence in social life through its prominent position. Similarly, the St. Lawrence’s Church, adjacent to the South Bay Port, holds significant meaning for the nautical community. It serves as a crucial site for sailors to pray for safe voyages before setting sail, earning it the nickname “Church of the Blessed Sails.” Its location perfectly caters to the practical and emotional needs of mariners. Moreover, churches play a pivotal role in the community. For example, the stable residential area that gradually formed around St. Anthony’s Church not only provides spiritual comfort but also enhances community cohesion and social stability through events like weddings, resulting in a neighborhood structure that facilitates management, protection, and community bonding. On the other hand, to accommodate residents’ convenience and cultural adaptability, churches were deliberately distributed across various neighborhoods and villages. For instance, the Seminary of St. Joseph is situated within a residential area, facilitating residents’ participation in daily masses and other religious activities. As the city grew and populations shifted, new churches were constructed close to new settlements, ensuring that believers could easily access church services and educational support.

The churches of Macau have historically and presently served as significant venues for Catholic religious practices, community services, and cultural education (Figure 4). Every year on 13 May, St. Dominic’s Church becomes the starting point for the procession of Our Lady of Fatima, during which a grand mass is held to commemorate her apparition. Additionally, this church serves as one of the performance venues for the Macau International Music Festival. St. Anthony’s Church is highly revered due to its dedication to St. Anthony, who is considered the patron saint of marriage. Especially on feast days like St. Anthony’s Day (13 June), many believers choose to hold their weddings here. Furthermore, the St. Francis Church is not only utilized for religious education but has also become an important cultural tourism and educational landmark thanks to its Baroque architectural style and its feature in the film “The Prince and the Pauper.” The ruins of St. Paul’s and its surrounding area are not just historical and cultural heritage sites but also serve as hubs for community activities. They have historically and presently played a role in providing social services to the broader community through charitable events, educational programs, and other social assistance projects organized by the church.

In summary, the spatial arrangement, architectural aesthetics, and hosted religious practices of churches in Macau have collectively forged the city’s distinctive historical urban scenery, leaving a profound cultural imprint on both the geography and sociology of the region. The dispersal of churches mirrors the power dynamics inherent in the urban planning during the Portuguese colonial era. Typically situated along key transportation arteries and within commercial hubs, these churches underscore Catholicism’s prominent role in Macau’s societal fabric. Nonetheless, this positioning might also suggest a symbiotic relationship between religious and political authorities, potentially marginalizing other faiths. Despite the incorporation of indigenous Macanese and Oriental design elements in church architecture, this amalgamation could be interpreted more as a superficial cultural blending rather than a substantive, equal-footing dialogue, thus raising concerns about cultural homogenization. Furthermore, the transformation of churches into touristic landmarks, while bolstering cultural accessibility, might contribute to the over-commercialization of these sacred spaces, resulting in superficial religious experiences and a dilution of their spiritual essence.

3.2. Temples in Macau

The temples in Macau exhibit a diverse range of architectural styles, encompassing both classical Chinese traditional Taoist and Buddhist temples as well as unique Sino-Western hybrid structures. These temples not only embody the continuation of local religious culture but also reflect Macau’s historical status as a gateway for East–West exchanges. A prime example is the A-Ma Temple, originally constructed during the Ming Dynasty. It showcases a typical Lingnan traditional temple style, featuring a wooden and stone structure combined with distinctive elements of marine culture, thus embodying the local inheritance of Mazu belief (Figure 5).

The spatial distribution of temples in Macau exhibits a strong regional and community-related character. They are widely scattered across different areas such as the Macau Peninsula, Taipa, and Coloane, with some concentrated in the core zones of the historic city and others dotted around various villages and residential centers (Figure 6). For instance, temples like the Lianfeng Temple, Shalitou Earth Temple, Pak Tai Temple, Temple of the Queen of Heaven, and Yiling Temple often serve as the focal points and spiritual anchors of their respective communities. The A-Ma Temple, located in the southern part of the Macau Peninsula near early residential settlements and the harbor, embodies the deep-seated belief of coastal fishermen in Mazu, the patron goddess of the sea. Occupying a significant position in urban planning, it has guided the development of surrounding neighborhoods. The widespread distribution of temples and their concentration in specific areas reveal the profound influence of religious activities on Macau’s geographical space. Beyond the well-known A-Ma Temple, Macau is home to numerous smaller folk temples tucked away in various corners. These temples, like the veins and nodes of the city, together with other religious facilities such as churches, constitute a complex and rich religious geographical landscape. They are not merely places of worship for believers but also venues for various festive events and celebrations marking the birthdays of different deities (Figure 7). For instance, every year on the 23rd day of the third lunar month, the birthday of Mazu (also known as the Empress of Heaven) is celebrated with great fervor at the A-Ma Temple, one of the most significant folk beliefs in Macau. Believers commemorate Mazu through offerings, sacrifices, and processions, promoting the spirit of marine culture and protecting maritime safety. Meanwhile, the birthdays of the Earth God, widely worshiped in Chinese society, are celebrated on the second day of the second lunar month or the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month with activities such as prayers, theatrical performances in honor of the gods, and the distribution of “peace rice”.

In summary, the architectural style and spatial configuration of temples in Macau not only embody historical, cultural, and religious traditions but also serve as a mirror reflecting the evolution of the urban spatial framework and community dynamics. Through diverse religious practices, these temples occupy a pivotal position in Macau’s social fabric, imprinting the cityscape with distinctive cultural markers and spiritual undertones. They exhibit the profound local beliefs and rich cultural patrimony that characterizes Macau. However, the dispersal and activities of these temples, while fostering community cohesion, might also reinforce communal boundaries, potentially leading to cultural segregation. Furthermore, as focal points of community activity, the frequent events hosted by temples might disrupt the daily rhythm of life, resulting in imbalances in public resource allocation and inadequate consideration for non-adherents.

3.3. Monasteries in Macau

The monasteries of Macau occupy a pivotal position in the city’s spatial structure, exerting a profound influence on its urban morphology, community life, and cultural landscape. Simultaneously, through frequent and influential religious activities, they have left distinctive imprints on both geographical and sociocultural dimensions.

In the realm of architectural art, the monasteries in Macau have inherited the profound building traditions of Chinese Han Buddhism and Taoism, blending them with the architectural features of the Ming and Qing dynasties (Figure 8). For instance, the Puchi Monastery serves as a typical example of Ming-Qing architecture, featuring the flying-eave roof structure, which is a significant embodiment of Chinese classical architectural art. In terms of its overall layout, the temple follows the traditional three-progression or multicourtyard pattern of Han Buddhist monasteries. With the principle of strict axial symmetry as its core design philosophy, it is arranged in sequential order from south to north: the gate, the Main Hall of the Buddha, the Longevity Buddha Hall, and the Guan Yin Hall. This layout not only fulfills the needs of religious ceremonies but also creates a landscape effect with rich layers and clear sequences. Furthermore, many monasteries in Macau are typically located in the heart of residential areas or at key transportation nodes, highlighting the ancient urban design concept of “the temple as the core”. These venues are not just spiritual centers for worship but have also become public activity areas and important carriers of social interaction in the daily lives of surrounding community residents. For instance, the adjacent layout of the Guanyin Ancient Temple and the City God Temple allows believers and tourists to conveniently visit both temples in one trip, thereby enhancing the cultural atmosphere and the continuity of religious activities within the region. This reflects the phenomenon of multiculturalism and harmonious coexistence of religions in Macau society (Figure 9).

The Lianxi Temple in Macau is situated in Da Lan Lane beside the Yongle Theater in Xinqiao, closely adjacent to the right bank of the Lianxi River. Its location follows the principles of ancient Chinese Feng Shui in site selection, facilitating daily worship and sacrificial activities for residents. Due to its unique geographical position, it has gradually become a landmark building that carries a strong sense of community identity (Figure 10). During important festivals and celebrations, such as the Birthday of the Northern Emperor and the Birthday of Hua Guang, a significant number of believers and tourists gather here to participate in religious rituals. This phenomenon of spatial dynamic reconstruction triggered by religious activities allows the originally static urban space to be reshaped in terms of temporary use patterns. As a result, the influence of religious activities transcends geographical boundaries and permeates into broader social spatial domains.

In summary, the traditional Chinese temples in Macau, distinguished by their unique architectural style and profound cultural heritage, have enriched the city with a diverse array of cultural treasures and visual aesthetics. Through their ingenious spatial layouts and ongoing religious activities, these temples have forged a tight-knit social network within the urban spatial framework, thereby significantly shaping Macau’s distinctive geographical and social spatial patterns. Nonetheless, it remains worthwhile to investigate whether their evolving influence and functional transformations, such as in education and community services, are keeping abreast with contemporary demands.

4. Spatial Construction: Religious Culture Becomes the Link of Social Development

This section underscores the profound influence of Macau’s religious culture, a vibrant sociocultural phenomenon, on the city’s comprehensive development. Through the accumulation of cultural capital, the shaping of spatial symbols, its social integration capabilities, and its role in guiding spatial production and consumption, religious culture has a significant impact on Macau’s urban fabric. The objective is to investigate the potential of religion in fostering distinctive urban cultural traits, fostering community cultural identity, and enhancing social cohesion within the framework of globalization.

4.1. Cultural Capital Accumulation and Spatial Symbolization

The spatio-temporal development of religious culture in Macau offers a profound case study of sustained cultural capital accumulation and spatial symbolization. Religious institutions in this city, including churches, temples, and monasteries, serve not only as physical hubs for religious practices but also as crucial repositories of cultural capital. They embody the enduring faith of believers, the missionary efforts of religious leaders, the artistic mastery of craftsmen, and a rich tapestry interwoven with the local sociohistorical backdrop, fostering a profound historical narrative. These religious buildings typically exhibit a harmonious blend of cross-cultural architectural and decorative elements. For instance, the ruins of St. Paul’s Church amalgamate Eastern and Western design features, while the A-Ma Temple radiates the charm of Ming and Qing dynasty architecture. Their aesthetic appeal extends beyond the main structures to encompass an array of artistic creations such as sculptures, paintings, inscriptions, and ritual vessels, collectively shaping Macau’s distinctive and enriching cultural capital system.

In shaping material forms and investing them with symbolic significance, religious spaces gradually evolve into recognizable urban symbols. Religious buildings function not just as venues for rituals but also as visible manifestations of social, cultural, and political power dynamics (Knott 2016). Macau’s religious landmarks, distinguished by their unique architectural styles, strategic locations, and landscape planning, not only constitute a core aspect of the city’s visual identity but also reinforce their status as spiritual beacons of the city through periodic religious festivals, pilgrimages, public prayers, and other events. These landmarks serve as both prominent geographical markers and focal points of collective memory and emotional attachment. For instance, the ruins of St. Paul’s have emerged as an iconic symbol of Macau’s historic precinct and, indeed, the city itself, whereas the A-Ma Temple bears witness to Macau’s profound maritime heritage and Chinese diasporic history. There exists a profound correlation between Macau’s religious topography and its urban spatial configuration, with the distribution pattern deeply reflecting historical shifts, social structures, and ethnic relations. Far from being isolated, religious institutions are seamlessly integrated with the urban fabric, including residential buildings, commercial districts, and public squares, creating a vibrant and diverse city texture. Catholic churches, often positioned in central locations or key transport hubs, mirror the close alignment of religion and political authority during early colonial times. Conversely, Buddhist and Taoist temples tend to be situated in scenic locales like foothills or waterfronts, echoing the local populace’s lifestyle and faith traditions. Such spatial arrangements underscore religion’s deep permeation into various societal aspects and reveal the cultural diversity and functional zoning of urban spaces.

As society evolves, Macau’s religious landscape demonstrates remarkable adaptability to the changing urban milieu and societal demands. On the one hand, some historic religious structures undergo preservation and restoration efforts, acquiring additional functions like education, exhibition, and community outreach, thereby transitioning into multifaceted cultural hubs. On the other hand, emerging religious groups or foreign faiths seek to establish themselves in urban fringes or newly developed areas, introducing fresh religious focal points and enriching the city’s religious tapestry. These transformations reflect religion’s inherent resilience and adaptability in the modern social context while underscoring the inclusivity and responsiveness of urban spaces to multicultural imperatives amidst societal shifts. This spatial framework and the diverse cultural activities it fosters effectively bolster residents’ sense of belonging to Macau’s distinct regional identity, deepening communal bonds. In essence, the spatio-temporal evolution of religious culture in Macau profoundly unveils and reinterprets the underlying structure and developmental dynamics of urban culture.

4.2. Social Integration and Spatial Cohesion

During the intricate transformation and evolution of social structures, religious culture in Macau has played an indispensable role in fostering social integration. It serves not only as a cornerstone and guide for individuals’ spiritual journeys but also exhibits profound cohesion and connectivity within the societal fabric. Religious observances, such as Mass, chanting, and pujas, transcend their function as mere spiritual practices for believers; they become platforms for cross-cultural and cross-community dialogue and understanding. These practices penetrate potential social barriers, fostering harmony through shared experiences and cultural exchanges. Religious festivals like Christmas, Buddha’s Birthday, and Mazu’s Birthday are not just religious rites but also widely celebrated community events. Through collective rituals, cuisine, and performances, these festivals deepen the community’s emotional ties to local culture, strengthening a sense of belonging and identity.

Kim Knott posits that religious space is not a stagnant, physical concept but a dynamic, social process (Knott 2017). In Macau, religious institutions such as churches, temples, and monasteries have gradually evolved from being solely places of worship to being hubs of community life and interaction. By hosting various non-religious community events, including educational programs, charitable activities, and art exhibitions, these spaces have broadened their societal impact. They have become conduits for community resources and catalysts for social networking. Their openness and inclusivity draw individuals from diverse backgrounds, fostering cross-traditional connections and expanding social networks. This not only enhances neighborly relations but also mitigates social isolation, significantly contributing to social integration.

The diversity of Macau’s religious culture is evident in the coexistence and intermingling of multiple faiths. The symbiotic interaction of adherents from various religions within the same urban milieu presents opportunities for mutual understanding and cultural exchange. This enhances the city’s cultural richness and fosters cultural innovation. For instance, Taoist rites at the A-Ma Temple might exhibit Buddhist influences, while Catholic churches might incorporate Eastern architectural aesthetics. These examples illustrate how religious spaces serve as vibrant stages for multicultural exchange and learning. Changes in the distribution, scale, and form of religious spaces, as well as their positioning within the urban fabric, often mirror broader social shifts. As Macau progresses socioeconomically and urbanizes, religious institutions originally on the city’s fringes might be integrated into its center, becoming iconic landmarks. Conversely, new religious structures might emerge in response to the evolving needs of the community. These transformations reflect the dynamic interplay between urban spatial organization, social structures, and ethnic relations.

At the urban governance level, managing and preserving religious spaces entails considerations such as religious freedom, cultural heritage protection, and community engagement. The collaboration among governments, religious organizations, and community members in planning, utilizing, and preserving these spaces underscores the value placed on religious culture in Macau. It also reveals the intricacies of balancing multiple interests and safeguarding the public good in urban governance. In summary, Macau’s religious culture and its physical manifestations constitute a potent medium for promoting social cohesion, maintaining communal harmony, and facilitating cultural exchange and learning.

4.3. Space Production and Consumption Guidance

Macau’s religious culture has played a pivotal role in shaping the city’s urban spatial structure and economic paradigm. This is evidenced by the profound impact religious buildings and their environments have as vital components of urban renewal and tourism strategies. These buildings, including churches, temples, and monasteries, contribute significantly to the multifaceted and layered urban fabric of Macau, embodying a unique sacredness. They serve not just as physical anchors for religious practices but also as iconic landmarks within the urban milieu, effectively spearheading initiatives like revitalizing old neighborhoods and preserving historical districts. This preserves Macau’s rich historical and cultural ambiance amidst contemporary development.

However, as Macau embraces tourism-driven commercialization, there is a risk that the inherent value and societal role of religious spaces may be eroded by commercial interests. As religious landmarks are repackaged as tourist commodities, visitor experiences often become superficial, focusing primarily on aesthetics, photography, and souvenir acquisition, while neglecting deeper understandings of religious meanings, histories, and community ways of life. This shift may lead to a situation where the spiritual essence of these spaces is overshadowed by a culture of superficial consumption, undermining their function as community pillars and transmitters of cultural heritage.

Furthermore, large-scale tourism can disrupt the daily rhythms of local communities. Religious rituals may undergo modifications in timing, scale, or even form to cater to tourist demands, thereby disrupting regular religious practices for local believers. Additionally, increased tourist traffic can lead to environmental issues like congestion and noise pollution, potentially causing conflicts between residents and tourists over space usage and threatening the community’s harmonious coexistence. Despite efforts by the government and relevant authorities to promote the preservation and innovative use of religious and cultural heritage, striking a balance between protection and development remains challenging. An overreliance on tourism-derived economic benefits can lead to the over-commercialization of religious heritage, such as excessive renovations and inappropriate expansions, compromising the authenticity and integrity of these sites. Moreover, the pursuit of economic gains may overshadow routine maintenance and restoration efforts, hindering the long-term preservation of religious and cultural heritage. Although religious spaces are viewed as hubs for community resources and social networking, community members often have limited input and decision-making power in operational decisions. This can not only distance the community from religious sites but also impede effective planning and oversight for the future development of these spaces.

In conclusion, while Macau’s religious culture significantly influences its urban landscape and economic patterns, commercialization and tourism-driven utilization pose challenges such as the dilution of spiritual significance, disruption of community life, imbalances in heritage protection, and inadequate community involvement. Thus, it is imperative to conduct in-depth research and formulate appropriate responses to ensure harmonious coexistence between religious spaces and the tourism industry, respecting and preserving the cultural values of these spaces while avoiding exploitation and alienation.

5. Conclusions

This paper presents a framework and ideas for future research on the religious culture and urban spatial development of Macau. By tracing the emergence and evolution of religious beliefs in Macau, this study elucidates the motivations behind its cultural formation and the dissemination pathways from a historical perspective. Utilizing a spatial anthropological lens, this paper systematically outlines the correlation mechanism between Macau’s diverse religious culture and its urban spatial structure. Based on these discussions, we re-examine religious culture as a pivotal component of social development, exploring its influence on urban societal transformations and the shaping of local culture. The conclusion of this paper centers around the core inquiry: “How do religious sites in Macau impact the city’s social structure and cultural identity through their spatial practices?” It addresses the specific questions posed in Section 1.1 and offers a critical reflection on the findings.

• The emergence and transformation of religious culture in Macau represents a vibrant historical-geographical process, serving as a compelling instance of multicultural intersection and amalgamation. Macau’s pivotal location along the East–West maritime trade routes enabled it to historically embrace merchants and missionaries from Europe, Southeast Asia, and various corners of the globe, thereby facilitating the dissemination and entrenchment of diverse religions. Notably, between the 16th and 19th centuries, Catholicism gained a foothold in Macau through the Portuguese, laying a firm foundation in the region. Concurrently, traditional Chinese religions, including Buddhism and Taoism, thrived locally, alongside later arrivals such as Islam and Protestantism. It is worth mentioning that Western missionaries not only introduced Catholicism to Macau but also actively engaged in profound dialogues and integrations with Chinese Confucian ethics. This fostered cross-cultural exchanges and religious adaptations, giving rise to a Sino-Western religious architectural aesthetic and a myriad of religious festivals. These elements facilitated mutual influence and learning amongst diverse religions, collectively shaping Macau’s rich and distinctive religious landscape. This landscape serves as a reflection of religious cultural exchange, collision, and dissemination in the era of globalization. In this process, while cultural exchange and integration positively contribute to promoting the coexistence of diversity, they also serve as a reminder to exercise caution regarding the potential risks of cultural homogenization and inequality that may arise. It is imperative to safeguard the coexistence and flourishing of diverse cultural characteristics founded on mutual respect, preventing them from being obscured or marginalized.
• The spatial arrangement of various religious sites in Macau mirrors the cultural heterogeneity of the city, particularly evident in the dispersal of Catholic churches alongside Buddhist and Taoist temples. This layout not only visually represents cultural diversity but also stands as a tangible testament to historical and religious interchange and amalgamation. The centrally located church, with its amalgamation of Chinese and Western architectural motifs, underscores not just the influence of Catholicism but also showcases cultural accommodation and ingenuity. Buddhist and Taoist temples, especially the iconic A-Ma Temple, embody the maritime culture and indigenous beliefs, thereby reinforcing the locale’s distinctiveness and highlighting Macau’s unique position in the interplay between local and foreign cultures within the globalized framework. Nonetheless, this configuration prompts contemplation on whether religious spaces could potentially exacerbate community segregation and whether interfaith dialogues are adequately profound. Religious institutions foster societal connections and cultural identity primarily through festive observances and educational endeavors, encompassing celebrations like Christmas, Buddha’s Birthday, and Mazu’s Birthday, alongside secular exhibitions, and educational initiatives. These endeavors effectively bolster community cohesion and cultural identity, serving as vessels of collective recollection and experience. They reinforce residents’ sense of identity and belongingness while fostering cross-cultural comprehension and respect. However, it has emerged as a pivotal consideration whether the endeavors undertaken by religious institutions are adequately inclusive, averting exclusivity. Furthermore, maintaining cultural openness and dynamic progression while bolstering cultural identity to prevent cultural stagnancy has become a pertinent challenge.
• The functions of religious sites have undergone significant adaptations and transformations in response to social changes. This evolution is evident in their functional expansion and adaptive transformations. Specifically, religious sites have progressed from being exclusively devoted to worship activities to serving as multifaceted hubs for cultural education, event exhibitions, and an array of community services. This shift illustrates a proactive adaptation to societal shifts and a willingness to embrace a broader role in the community. However, while the spatial practices associated with Macau’s religious culture are driving urban renewal and shaping economic models, they also reveal the potential downsides of tourism on the cultural exploitation of these religious spaces. In pursuit of economic gains and enhancement of the city’s image, it is imperative to explore sustainable methods for balancing the protection of religious cultural heritage, preserving the purity of religious practices, safeguarding community rights, and promoting tourism. By doing so, religious spaces can not only maintain their inherent roles of spiritual guidance and social integration in the face of social changes but can also evolve to meet diverse societal needs, ultimately achieving a harmonious coexistence of cultural and economic values.

In summary, the spatial configuration, evolving social functions, and adaptability of religious sites in Macau amidst social changes offer a compelling microcosm of multicultural coexistence and dynamics. Nevertheless, they simultaneously expose intricate challenges pertaining to cultural preservation, community inclusivity, commercialization, and the maintenance of cultural authenticity. A reasoned analysis of these issues underscores the necessity for continual surveillance and proactive measures to tackle potential problems such as cultural homogenization, community fragmentation, and erosion of cultural authenticity, all while appreciating their significant role in fostering multiculturalism. Striking a delicate balance between safeguarding and advancing these religious sites is pivotal in ensuring their enduring spiritual significance and cultural diversity.

Drawing upon an examination of the historical traceability of Macau’s rich religious tapestry, this study dynamically explores the evolving patterns and influence mechanisms of religious culture within the context of contemporary social transformation. Moreover, it uncovers the profound significance of religious culture as a pivotal component of social progress through the lens of urban spatial development. Nevertheless, our inquiry does not culminate here. Future investigations are imperative to delve into the growth and impact of lesser-known faiths like Baha’i and Zoroastrianism alongside prevalent beliefs such as Catholicism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Protestantism in Macau. Additionally, a comprehensive study of the management frameworks and paradigms surrounding the diverse religious landscape of Macau holds substantial importance for advancing sociocultural research in the city.