The Unity of Virtue and Body: Moral Realization in Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue

Abstract

Mencius’ “Theory of Embodying Virtue 踐形說” is an important theory that combines moral cultivation and physical practice, emphasizing that virtue is externalized and realized through concrete physical actions. This paper explores the theoretical foundation of the “Theory of Embodying Virtue 踐形說”, examining its internal connections with Mencius’ doctrines of “Innate Goodness”, “Four Beginnings 四端”, and “Nurturing Qi 養氣”. Through self-cultivation, individuals can gradually transform their inner virtues into outward behaviors, ultimately achieving the unity of virtue and the body. This not only serves as an essential path for personal moral cultivation but also embodies the Confucian moral ideal. Additionally, the paper analyzes the contemporary significance of the “Theory of Embodying Virtue” from the perspectives of modern ethics and body philosophy, particularly in terms of its implications for moral education, the improvement of social ethics, and the shaping of leaders’ moral images. By conducting an in-depth discussion, this paper reveals that Mencius’ “Theory of Embodying Virtue” still holds significant theoretical and practical value in contemporary society.

1. Introduction

Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue is a unique exploration within his philosophical system regarding the relationship between virtue and the body, and it is a significant highlight of Pre-Qin Confucian thought. Mencius argues that virtue is not merely cultivated within the mind but is also externally manifested through the body. The body, as the carrier of virtue, reflects virtue’s influence and shaping of physical form, thus, making moral cultivation not only an internal process but also one that is visibly expressed through the body. This process of “embodying virtue” is a way of transforming moral concepts into concrete actions through self-cultivation, and it is a specific manifestation of the Confucian ideal of achieving both personal inner wisdom and outer governance (內聖外王). Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue represents a major breakthrough in Confucian bodily thought (Yang 1996, p. 45). He not only continued Confucius’ ideas on moral cultivation but also further integrated the relationship between virtue and the body into the realization of morality, providing a new perspective for understanding the Confucian view of the body and the practice of self-cultivation. The idea of the unity of virtue and the body occupies an important position in Mencius’ philosophy. Mencius believed that through continuous self-cultivation and moral practice, virtue could be externalized as physical postures, actions, and behaviors. This not only signifies the realization of virtue but also distinguishes humans from animals. Therefore, the body is no longer merely a material entity but a manifestation and carrier of moral values.

In modern ethics and body philosophy, Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue still holds significant relevance. With the increasing focus on the integration of body and mind in contemporary moral development, Mencius’ idea provides a profound theoretical underpinning. In modern society, people face complex moral dilemmas where the gap between knowing and doing often exists. Mencius’ theory offers a way to bridge this gap by emphasizing that virtue should be embodied through daily physical behaviors. For instance, in the context of environmental protection, the act of simply recycling waste materials can be seen as an external manifestation of the virtue of responsibility. It showcases how individuals can translate their inner moral beliefs into tangible actions, guiding people to internalize morality into action and practice virtue through the body. This makes it highly valuable for research and application.

In recent years, studies on Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue have gradually gained attention in academic circles internationally. Chinese scholars tend to focus on exploring Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue from the perspectives of his “Theory of the Original Goodness of Human Nature” (性善論) and the “Four Beginnings” (四端), arguing that the integration of his virtue theory with his view of the body is an innovative aspect of his thought. Some scholars have also approached it from the angle of body aesthetics, exploring how Mencius used the sensory expressions of the body to demonstrate the power and brilliance of virtue (Liu 2019). In addition, the topics of self-cultivation in Confucian ethics and the relationship between virtue and the body have increasingly drawn academic attention. In contemporary society, with the revival of Confucian ethics, people are more eager to seek effective ways to cultivate themselves and understand the profound connection between inner virtue and outward physical manifestations. Against this backdrop, Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue emerges as a crucial guiding ideology. For example, in educational settings, educators are beginning to integrate the theory of “embodying virtue” into moral education curricula, inspiring students to not only learn moral knowledge but also translate it into daily behaviors and body language. This practical application showcases how Mencius’ theory provides fresh impetus and new significance to modern moral development and self-cultivation (Xu 2015).

Meanwhile, other scholars, often from different cultural and academic backgrounds, tend to place Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue in a broader comparative philosophical context, examining its similarities and differences with Western ethics and body philosophy (Ames 2006). Some scholars point out that Mencius’ view of the body in the Theory of Embodying Virtue contrasts with the Western dualism of body and soul. They focus on how Mencius, through the expression of the “form” (形), breaks the dualism of body and mind, thus, achieving the unity of virtue and body (Han 2013). However, despite the existing research, there is still limited discussion on how the Theory of Embodying Virtue is concretely realized in moral practice, particularly in the context of its application and inspiration in contemporary society.

The purpose of this study is to explore in depth the issue of the unity of virtue and the body in Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue, analyzing its place in the Confucian philosophical system and its significance for moral cultivation. Through an analysis of the Theory of Embodying Virtue, this paper aims to reveal how Mencius realized the brilliance of virtue through the external manifestation of the body and to explore the implications of this thought for modern ethics and body philosophy. The main content of this paper includes the following aspects: First, it analyzes the theoretical foundation of Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue, exploring its internal connections with the “Theory of the Original Goodness of Human Nature”, the “Four Beginnings”, and the “Theory of Cultivating Qi” (養氣說). Secondly, it examines Mencius’ unique understanding of the body, discussing the role of the body in the externalization of virtue. Finally, it integrates modern ethics and body philosophy to analyze the contemporary relevance of the Theory of Embodying Virtue. Through literature analysis and philosophical interpretation, this paper will conduct a systematic study of Mencius’ texts and engage in dialogue with modern philosophical thought to provide new interpretive paths for understanding the Theory of Embodying Virtue.

2. The Theoretical Foundation of Mencius’ “Theory of Embodying Virtue”

Mencius stated: “Form and appearance are inherent in human nature; only the sage can embody virtue 形色，天性也；惟聖人然後可以踐形” (Mencius, Jinxin I)1. In Mencius’ philosophical system, the Theory of Embodying Virtue is not merely a method of moral practice; it is deeply rooted within the overall structure of his thought. To understand the theoretical foundation of the Theory of Embodying Virtue, one must first trace back to the core concept of Mencius’ philosophy, namely the “Theory of the Original Goodness of Human Nature” (性善論). Mencius’ “Theory of the Original Goodness of Human Nature” asserts that humans are inherently good, and virtue is an intrinsic part of human nature. Therefore, the practice of virtue is not only an internal process of moral cultivation but is also realized through the physical manifestation of moral behavior. In this context, embodying virtue becomes the necessary means of expressing inner virtue through external actions.

2.1. The “Theory of Innate Goodness” in Mencius’ Philosophy

Mencius’ Theory of Innate Goodness (Xing Shan Lun 性善論) is a fundamental cornerstone of his entire philosophical system and serves as the core theoretical basis for the Theory of Embodying Virtue. Mencius clearly stated: “The goodness of human nature is like water flowing downward; there is no person who does not tend toward goodness, just as there is no water that does not flow downward 人性之善也，猶水之就下也；人無有不善，水無有不下” (Mencius, 6A2). This vivid simile of water flowing downhill was employed by Mencius to illustrate the instinctive inclination of human nature towards goodness. This propensity is deeply rooted in the very essence of human nature, representing an outward manifestation of its inherent attributes. He firmly believed that every individual is endowed with a fundamental goodness at birth. This innate benevolence not only endows humans with a moral potential far surpassing that of animals but also lays a solid foundation for the actualization of virtue and morality. As he emphasized, the goodness of human nature is a natural and intrinsic quality, by no means an accidental acquisition in later life. In Mencius’ view, every person’s nature is inherently good, and this inherent goodness plays a pivotal role in shaping human moral development and the pursuit of ethical ideals. Mencius believed that virtues such as benevolence (Ren 仁), righteousness (Yi 義), propriety (Li 禮), and wisdom (Zhi 智) are rooted in human nature, and through life’s experiences and practice, these virtues can be continuously cultivated and expanded. Therefore, virtue is not only what distinguishes humans from animals, but it is also the ultimate goal of human moral development.

Mencius’ Theory of Innate Goodness is closely linked to the Theory of Embodying Virtue because the Theory of Innate Goodness emphasizes the internal foundation of virtue, while the Theory of Embodying Virtue further asserts that this inherent virtue must be expressed through external practice. Mencius believed that the virtues with which every person is born could be manifested and developed through education and self-cultivation. However, this manifestation does not remain confined to thoughts or the inner heart but must also be demonstrated through physical actions. In other words, virtue resides deep within the soul but should be actualized through one’s behavior, demeanor, and bodily expression. This is the essence of Mencius’ concept of embodying virtue, where the union of virtue and the body is not only a way to cultivate personal morality but also forms the foundation for social ethical norms.

In Mencius’ philosophical system, virtue and human nature are inseparable, as human nature represents the purest and most noble aspect of humanity. This inner goodness can be realized and expanded through individual moral practice and further enhanced through education and self-cultivation, ultimately allowing it to be outwardly displayed through bodily actions. Therefore, the cultivation of virtue involves both inner moral refinement and external physical discipline. Mencius’ Theory of Innate Goodness firmly establishes the close relationship between human nature and virtue, while the Theory of Embodying Virtue enables this virtue to be visibly expressed through the body, making moral cultivation a tangible and observable practice.

2.2. The Role of the “Four Beginnings” Theory in the “Theory of Embodying Virtue”

Mencius’ “Four Beginnings” (Si Duan 四端) theory is a detailed exposition of his thoughts on virtue and serves as the fundamental basis for the practice of the Theory of Embodying Virtue. Mencius stated, “The feeling of compassion is the beginning of benevolence (Ren 仁); the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness (Yi 義); the feeling of respect and deference is the beginning of propriety (Li 禮); and the feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom (Zhi 智)” (Mencius, 1A6). The “Four Beginnings” refer to these innate feelings: compassion, shame, respect, and the sense of right and wrong, which correspond to the four cardinal virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. Mencius believed that everyone is born with these moral seeds or sources, and through constant cultivation and expansion, these internal virtues can be externalized into concrete actions, allowing individuals to gradually attain the moral state of the sage.

Tang Junyi once remarked, “The spirit of one’s personality always operates within the attitude, demeanor, actions, and speech of one’s living body, interacting with the external natural and social environment, and ultimately manifesting in one’s achievements in life” (Tang 1984). This closely aligns with Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue. Mencius emphasized that virtue should not remain merely an internal emotion or consciousness; it must be realized and expressed through concrete physical actions. The spirit of an individual’s character is manifested through outward expressions—through bodily movements, postures, and speech—interacting with the surrounding environment and ultimately revealing the brilliance of virtue in social life and one’s career.

This concept of embodying virtue highlights the process in which, through the continuous cultivation of the “Four Beginnings”, virtues are gradually externalized from the inner heart into specific bodily actions. The moral spirit within becomes visible through the body’s postures and speech. A person’s character is not merely a matter of internal virtue cultivation; it must also be expressed through physical behavior. Tang Junyi’s idea that “virtue is expressed in speech and action” illustrates how moral cultivation must ultimately manifest in real-life actions and achievements. As Mencius believed, “what is desirable is called good; having it in oneself is called sincere; being complete in oneself is called beautiful; being complete and having a brilliance is called great; being great and transforming is called sage; being sage and unfathomable is called divine 可欲之謂善，有諸己之謂信，充實之謂美，充實而有光輝之謂大，大而化之之謂聖，聖而不可知之之謂神” (Mencius, 7B25). A sage, as Mencius conceived, is not only someone who possesses lofty internal virtues but also someone who can flawlessly express these virtues through daily actions and societal practices, making them a natural embodiment of moral virtue.

The “Four Beginnings” theory is, thus, a crucial part of Mencius’ thoughts on virtue, and it plays a central role in the Theory of Embodying Virtue. Only through the cultivation and practice of the “Four Beginnings” can a person’s internal virtues be externalized and made manifest through specific bodily actions. Mencius emphasized that moral cultivation is not only an internal pursuit of virtue but also must be embodied and expressed through the body and actions. This expression of virtue is achieved by continually refining and expanding the “Four Beginnings”—compassion, shame, respect, and the sense of right and wrong—which are both the moral compass within and the practical foundation for embodying virtue in action.

2.3. The Relationship Between “Nourishing the Heart” and “Nourishing Qi”

Mencius’ concept of Nourishing Qi 養氣 (Yang Qi) is closely related to Confucian body philosophy, emphasizing the transformation of the body’s natural vital energy into “Qi” imbued with moral content (Huang 2009). Mencius said, “I am skilled at nurturing my vast Qi 我善養吾浩然之氣” (Mencius, 3A2), referring to the process of accumulating virtue to cultivate Hao Ran Zhi Qi 浩然之氣—a powerful, upright energy that fills the heavens and earth. Nourishing Qi 養氣 is not merely about physical health but also involves integrating original vitality with ethical values through moral practice. Mencius proposed nourishing the heart (養心 Yang Xin), which means cultivating a heart of virtue rather than merely focusing on intellectual knowledge. He said, “There is nothing better for nourishing the heart than reducing desires 養心莫善於寡欲” (Mencius, 7B35), emphasizing that diminishing desires nurtures inner virtue. This indicates a path of self-cultivation that integrates the heart and Qi. Mencius also stated, “Qi is what fills the body 氣者，體之充也” (Mencius, 3A2), and Hao Ran Zhi Qi 浩然之氣 becomes manifested through the body’s fullness and transformation, achieving a unity between humans and morality, and ultimately harmonizing the individual’s life with the universe.

Mencius believed that the heart’s nature is fundamental, while Qi 氣 can be enhanced and refined through cultivation and regulation. In the Theory of Embodying Virtue, virtue is not confined to the level of the heart’s nature but must also be expressed through the shaping and regulation of Qi, which is then externalized in bodily actions. Therefore, virtue is internalized through the cultivation of the heart’s nature, while Qi 氣 is manifested through bodily practice. This process aligns with what Mencius called “self-cultivation” (Xiu Shen Yang Xing 修身養性), the continuous practice of merging virtue with the body, ultimately leading to a consistency between moral actions and inner virtue. Mencius asserted that cultivating the heart’s nature must be realized through the nurturing of Qi. He also stated, “Preserving one’s mind and nurturing one’s nature is the way to serve Heaven. 存其心，養其性，所以事天也” (Mencius, 7A1), suggesting that cultivating the heart and nature aligns with the way of Heaven. The cultivation of Qi 氣 is achieved through nourishing Qi, which involves continuous self-cultivation and practicing moral behaviors, gradually forming a bodily disposition and behavioral style that aligns with virtue. From this perspective, the body in Mencius’ philosophy is a body full of “Qi 氣” (Sommer 2008). In this process, virtue is internalized into the heart’s nature and externalized into physical actions.

In short, in Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue, the heart’s nature and Qi 氣 are complementary to one another. The heart’s nature represents the internal foundation of virtue, while Qi 氣 serves as the vital medium through which virtue is outwardly manifested through cultivation and practice. Through the cultivation of Qi, virtue is not only internalized in the heart but also visibly expressed in the body and actions, thus, achieving a union between virtue and the body. This concept provides critical theoretical support for Mencius’ moral philosophy and offers deep insights into the relationship between virtue and the body. Mencius’ theory of Nourishing Qi 養氣 highlights the transformation from nature to culture, reflecting the practical philosophy inherent in the Confucian view of the body.

3. The Role of the Body in Mencius’ Philosophy

In Mencius’ philosophical system, the body is not only a material existence but also a crucial tool for moral practice. It is worth noting that in Chinese culture, the body has never been merely material and mechanical; instead, it is an open and fluid system of vital energy (Tu 1992). In order to gain a deep understanding of the view of the body in Mencius’ theory of “manifesting the body”, it is necessary to start with an analysis of the concept of the body in Pre-Qin Confucianism. The Pre-Qin Confucian thought’s perspective on the body was not limited to the physiological level but also endowed it with profound ethical and moral implications. Confucianism emphasizes that the body is the foundation of an individual’s moral cultivation. Through the cultivation and practice of the body, an individual can continuously enhance their virtue. Therefore, exploring the Pre-Qin Confucian understanding of the body is a prerequisite for understanding Mencius’ view of the body.

3.1. The Understanding of the Body in Pre-Qin Confucianism

The view of the body in Pre-Qin Confucianism emphasizes the unity of body and mind as well as the inseparability of body and external objects. According to this view of the body, the body is not only a physiological existence but also an existence in the sense of philosophical ontology. In Pre-Qin Confucianism, there are no strict boundaries between the body, mind, and the external world; the body is a unified entity where the internal and external, self and object, are one. This view of the body is reflected in Pre-Qin Confucian ethics, which emphasizes the practice of virtue through concrete actions and bodily practices, rather than merely controlling the body through the mind (Zhang 2008). Additionally, in Pre-Qin Confucianism, the body is not only seen as the material foundation of individual existence but also carries profound ethical and moral implications. Confucianism places great importance on maintaining the integrity of the body, emphasizing that “the body, hair, and skin are given by our parents, and we dare not harm them 身體發膚，受之父母，不敢毀傷” (The Classic of Filial Piety 孝經). This view of the body reflects the extension of filial piety and the close connection between the body and moral cultivation in Confucianism. The body, as a concrete entity, is not limited to the material level; it is intertwined with elements such as spirit, morality, and social responsibility, becoming the foundation of individual life activities and moral behavior.

Confucianism emphasizes self-cultivation as the core of moral development, and the process of self-cultivation involves not only the enhancement of the mind but also the refinement and maintenance of the body. Confucius said, “To overcome the self and return to propriety is to achieve benevolence 克己復禮為仁” (The Analects, Yan Yuan), stressing the importance of self-discipline and concrete actions to attain moral excellence. Confucianism places a high value on achieving moral goals through bodily practice. For instance, in the Book of Rites, “propriety” (Li 禮) is not only a social norm but also an external manifestation of moral cultivation. As the Book of Rites says, “Propriety is reason, and, thus, the gentleman cannot refrain from diligently practicing propriety 禮者，理也，故君子不可以不勉於禮” (Book of Rites, Summary of Ritual Propriety I). Through the regulation of ritual behavior, individuals can continually adjust and elevate their moral standards. Therefore, in Confucian thought, the body is not only the vehicle through which virtue is realized but also serves as a tool for upholding social norms. Confucianism advocates for the realization of moral ideals through the internal and external cultivation of both body and mind, closely linking the material existence of the body with the pursuit of spiritual goals.

In this context, the body is not merely a material entity but also a symbol of individual moral cultivation and social identity. Mencius said, “Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are rooted in the heart, and their brilliance is seen in the face, fills the back, and is displayed in the four limbs 仁義禮智根於心，其生色也，睟然見於面，盎於背，施於四體” (Mencius, 7A21). Zhu Xi further commented, “Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are the four virtues of human nature. Root means the foundation; to manifest means to express. The appearance of clear, harmonious, and moist radiance is what is meant by ‘brilliance’. When the essence overflows, it is shown in the four limbs. What is expressed through actions and mannerisms is naturally understood without words 仁義禮智，性之四德也。根，本也。生，發見也。睟然，清和潤澤之貌。盎，豐厚盈溢之意。施於四體，謂見於動作威儀之閑也。喻，曉也。四體不言而喻，言四體不待吾言，而自能曉吾意也。蓋氣稟清明，無物欲之累，則性之四德根本於心，其積之盛，則發而著見於外者，不待言而無不順也” (Zhu 1986, p. 362). This indicates that through self-cultivation, the body can gradually unify with inner virtue, allowing the “Virtue-Qi” to naturally manifest in one’s bodily actions and become the concrete expression of moral behavior (Peng 2022). The body, as the foundation of moral practice, bears the dual function of individual moral development and social responsibility. This emphasis on the integration of body and virtue laid the foundation for Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue, making the body a crucial medium for moral cultivation and the realization of virtue.

3.2. Mencius’ Concept of “Form” and Its Implications

In Mencius’ philosophical system, form (形 Xing), meaning the body, holds significant moral and philosophical importance. Mencius held that the physical body is both the material basis of life and a crucial means for virtue manifestation. The body and the heart-mind are intertwined, with the heart-mind being the source of virtue and the body serving as the means to express it externally. His concept of form emphasized the body’s role as a vehicle for moral practice, extending beyond its physical nature.

In Mencius’ concept of form, the body is not merely a symbol of physical existence but a concrete manifestation of the heart-mind. The body is the site of virtue practice, transforming inner virtues into tangible, perceivable forms through actions, postures, and language. This unity of form and heart-mind demonstrates Mencius’ approach to realizing virtue, emphasizing the importance of the body in moral cultivation. He argued that the body is not only a tool for moral practice but also a reflection of moral refinement. Through bodily cultivation and practice, one can attain the highest level of moral achievement, becoming a sage. Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue provided a crucial theoretical foundation for later Confucian views of the body and moral cultivation, profoundly influencing the development of traditional Chinese culture, which emphasizes the integration of life, virtue, and the dual cultivation of body and mind in the construction of national identity.

Mencius’ view of form brought new life to his moral philosophy, emphasizing the body as a vital medium for moral practice. His Theory of Embodying Virtue proposed that an ideal body is one where the original body is refined and integrated with virtue, radiating moral splendor as a unified entity of body and mind (Zhang 2007). This view implies that moral awareness can transform the body into a spiritualized form.

Mencius’ concept of form emphasizes the inner connection between the body and heart-mind, as well as the role of the body in moral practice. Examining Mencius’ concept of form and its implications offers new perspectives on understanding Confucian views of the body and provides an opportunity to reconsider modern body theories. His Theory of Embodying Virtue underscores the significance of the body in moral practice, providing essential insights into personal moral cultivation and the development of both body and mind in contemporary society (Chen 2016). By exploring Mencius’ concept of form and its implications, we can better understand the relationship between body and virtue in Confucian thought, as well as how bodily cultivation can lead to moral enhancement and personal perfection.

3.3. The Relationship Between the Body and Virtue

In Confucian thought, the concept of the body is regarded as a fourfold unity, encompassing physical form and physiology, spiritualization, natural and cosmic energy transformation, and socialization. Confucianism emphasizes the structure of the body as an organic unity of form 形 (physical body), Qi 氣 (vital energy), and Xin 心 (heart-mind), with Qi 氣 serving as the bridge that connects the physical form and the heart-mind. The Xin encompasses knowledge, emotions, intentions, and rationality. Confucians believe that through self-cultivation, one can achieve the ideal state of “internal sagehood and external kingship”, meaning personal moral perfection and a positive contribution to society (Zhao 2011).

In Mencius’ thought, the body and virtue are interdependent. The body is the foundation and means for moral cultivation and external virtue expression. Mencius held that virtue is actualized through bodily practice, with the body converting inner virtue into observable moral actions via behaviors, movements, and expressions.

Mencius stressed that ’dwelling in benevolence and following righteousness’ is achieved through bodily practice. Virtue is manifested in behaviors and postures. A sage is one who can display virtue through bodily actions. Mencius claimed that body cultivation enables the transition of virtue from the inner to the outer, realizing the unity of virtue and body.

Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue illustrates the mutual dependence between the body and virtue. Virtue is externalized through bodily practice, while the body, through moral cultivation and adjustment, becomes a concrete manifestation of virtue. This unity between the body and virtue is not only the outcome of personal moral cultivation but also a key aspect of Confucian ethical thought. In Mencius’ view, the body is not merely a physical entity but a bearer of moral strength, and through the body’s embodiment, virtue is realized and reflected in daily life.

In conclusion, Mencius’ understanding of the body transcends its material aspect, seeing it as a crucial tool for moral practice. Through his Theory of Embodying Virtue, Mencius provided a concrete path for the unification of virtue and body, ensuring that the body plays an irreplaceable role in moral cultivation and ethical practice. The body is not just a form through which virtue is externalized but is the concrete manifestation of the moral ideal. This idea profoundly influenced the traditional Confucian view of the body and provided an essential theoretical foundation for moral practice in subsequent generations.

4. The Connotation and Pathway to Realizing “Jian Xing 踐形” (The Theory of Embodying Virtue)

When discussing Mencius’ idea of “Jian Xing 踐形” (The Theory of Embodying Virtue), it is essential to clarify the connotation of this concept and its pathway to realization. “Jian Xing 踐形” is not only a key concept in Mencius’ moral philosophy but also provides practical guidance for moral cultivation in Confucian thought. Through the cultivation of the body, individuals can transform their inner virtue into outward behaviors, thereby achieving the externalization of virtue and the unification of virtue and body. To better understand this idea, this section will begin with the relationship between “Jian Xing 踐形” and self-cultivation, exploring its realization pathway and its specific manifestations in the externalization of virtue.

4.1. The Meaning of “Jian Xing 踐形” and Its Relationship to Self-Cultivation

“Jian Xing 踐形” is an important concept in Mencius’ philosophy. Zhu Xi commented on the term “Jian Xing 踐形” as follows: “Every human being has a form and appearance, and each has its own natural principle, which is called the ‘heavenly nature’. ‘Jian’ means practicing according to these principles. While most people have a form, they cannot fully embody its principle; thus, they cannot fully practice their form. Only sages possess the form and can also fully embody its principle, allowing them to practice their form without any shortcomings 人之有形有色，無不各有自然之理，所謂天性也。踐，如踐言之踐。蓋眾人有是形，而不能盡其理，故無以踐其形；惟聖人有是形，而又能盡其理，然後可以踐其形而無歉也” (Zhu 1986, p. 368). Professor Yang Rur-bin interprets this concept by stating that “the idea of ‘Jian Xing 踐形’ refers to the process by which, after the expansion and transformation of moral consciousness, a person’s body can move from incompleteness to wholeness, with the entire body radiating moral brilliance, becoming a spiritualized body” (Yang 1993, p. 415). Therefore, the Theory of Embodying Virtue is not merely an abstract philosophical idea but a specific process where the individual, through moral cultivation, unifies inner virtue with outward physical expression. In Mencius’ moral system, virtue does not solely exist in a person’s inner world; it must be manifested and expressed through external actions and bodily behavior. In simple terms, “Jian Xing 踐形” is the practice of self-cultivation, transforming inner virtue into outward actions.

In Mencius’ philosophy, self-cultivation is the foundation of virtue cultivation. Self-cultivation involves not only the enhancement of the mind but also the training and regulation of the body. Mencius emphasized that the “form” (i.e., the body) is not merely a physical entity but also a crucial tool for manifesting virtue. He stated: “The body has differences in nobility and baseness, greatness and smallness. Do not let the small harm the great, nor let the base harm the noble. Nurturing the small makes one a petty person, while nurturing the great makes one a noble person 體有貴賤，有小大。無以小害大，無以賤害貴。養其小者為小人，養其大者為大人” (Mencius, 6A14). Here, “nurturing the great” refers to cultivating oneself to nurture great virtue, and through “Jian Xing”, the body and virtue achieve unity. Self-cultivation, as the foundation of personal moral development, allows the body to gradually become a tool and vehicle for virtue, with virtue being manifested through bodily behavior. Through self-cultivation, the body becomes the outward expression of virtue. Thus, in Mencius’ view, the “body” is not just the physical form but also the body of moral practice (Yang 1993, p. 101).

As the externalization process of moral cultivation, “Jian Xing 踐形” means that virtue does not merely remain as an inner moral intention or consciousness but is expressed through concrete actions. Mencius stated that “everyone can become a Yao or Shun 人皆可以為堯舜” (Mencius, 6B2), indicating that whether or not a person truly possesses virtue depends not only on their inner moral awareness but also on whether their outward behavior conforms to moral norms. Therefore, virtue must be verified and expressed through concrete bodily actions. This idea is closely related to the Confucian concept of self-cultivation, where self-cultivation is not only a means of cultivating virtue but also the pathway through which virtue is realized. Self-cultivation is the starting point of “Jian Xing 踐形” and the key to externalizing virtue. Mencius’ ideas about “preserving one’s mind, nurturing one’s nature in order to serve Heaven; accepting long life or short without changing one’s mind, practicing self-cultivation and waiting for fate to unfold 存其心，養其性，所以事天也；夭壽不貳，修身以俟之，所以立命也” (Mencius, 7A1) as well as the path of cultivating the four moral sprouts, form the specific practice of “Jian Xing”. Through the continuous cultivation and expansion of compassion, a sense of shame, deference, and a sense of right and wrong, an individual’s virtue gradually manifests in the body, and eventually, through specific bodily actions, virtue and the body become unified. Self-cultivation serves as the foundation of personal moral development, encompassing not only the cultivation of inner moral consciousness but also the externalization of virtue through bodily actions.

Furthermore, Mencius believed that the ultimate purpose of self-cultivation is not merely the individual’s moral elevation but also the influence of others through the externalization of virtue, thereby achieving social harmony and governance. An individual’s moral cultivation, manifested through bodily behavior, not only elevates the self but also serves as a positive moral example for others. This idea of realizing virtue through bodily practice reflects Mencius’ deep understanding of the relationship between virtue and the body, providing a concrete path for Confucian moral cultivation.

4.2. The Role of “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness” in “Jian Xing 踐形” (The Theory of Embodying Virtue)

As previously mentioned, Mencius’ “Four Beginnings” theory provides the internal moral emotional foundation for “Jian Xing”, among which benevolence and righteousness correspond to the most fundamental moral perceptions in human nature.

In Mencius’ moral philosophy, “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness” (居仁由义 Ju Ren You Yi) is a core concept for realizing “Jian Xing” (The Theory of Embodying Virtue). Mencius firmly believed that benevolence (仁 Ren) and righteousness (義 Yi) are the foundations of individual moral cultivation, and that “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness” is the key pathway for externalizing virtue. He explicitly stated: “Benevolence is the dwelling place of a person, and righteousness is the proper path. If one neglects the dwelling place and does not reside in it, or abandons the proper path and does not follow it, how tragic 仁，人之安宅也；義，人之正路也。曠安宅而弗居，舍正路而不由，哀哉” (Mencius, 4A10). This statement emphasizes the importance of benevolence and righteousness as both internal virtues and external guiding principles for action. “Dwelling in Benevolence” refers to cultivating a heart of compassion and making benevolence the central focus of one’s life, while “Acting with Righteousness” involves following the principles of justice and ensuring that one’s actions align with moral standards. Together, they form the moral foundation for the practice of “Jian Xing”.

Mencius emphasized that benevolence is an internal moral sentiment, while righteousness serves as an external behavioral guideline. Through “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness”, an individual’s inner virtues are externalized and manifested in concrete actions. Scholar Xu Fuguan further elaborated that Mencius’ concept of “accumulating righteousness” (集義 Ji Yi) is a process of “accumulating righteous actions through continuous effort”, stating that “righteousness is originally a seed within life, and the vital energy (氣 Qi) is the root of this seed that grows within the body and eventually unites with it, leading to the physiological sublimation of the body” (Xu 2004). This view aligns with Mencius’ theory of nurturing vital energy (養氣 Yang Qi). Mencius said: “I am skilled at nurturing my vast Qi. It is so vast and upright that, by nurturing it with integrity and without harm, it fills the space between Heaven and Earth 我善養吾浩然之氣…… 其為氣也，至大至剛，以直養而元害，則塞於天地之間” (Mencius, 2A2).

This shows that Mencius believed that virtue is not an isolated thought, but one that gradually deepens into an inner force through concrete bodily practice. “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness” is the process of accumulating righteous actions, which gradually embed virtue into the body and mind, ultimately achieving the unity of inner and outer virtue.

Moreover, “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness” has a profound impact on promoting social harmony. It not only aids in personal moral cultivation but also creates a favorable social atmosphere. When members of society generally abide by this principle, trust among people will be enhanced, mutual assistance behaviors will increase, and conflicts will be reduced, thus, promoting social harmony like a lubricant. For instance, in a neighborhood where the concept of “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness” is actively promoted, people start to care more about each other. Neighbors would offer a helping hand when someone is in trouble, like an elderly neighbor needing assistance with grocery shopping or a family facing a sudden illness. Disputes over trivial matters, such as parking spaces or noise, become fewer as everyone tries to understand and accommodate each other. This is because when individuals practice “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness”, they are constantly thinking about the well-being of others and following just principles in their actions. It makes the social environment more harmonious and friendly.

In conclusion, “Jian Xing 踐形” as an important concept in Mencius’ philosophy of moral cultivation depends on the practice of self-cultivation and the moral principles of “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness”. Through self-cultivation, an individual’s virtue is externalized in bodily actions, and through “Dwelling in Benevolence and Acting with Righteousness”, an individual’s moral consciousness is concretized in action, thereby achieving the unity of virtue and the body. This idea not only provides a practical foundation for Confucian moral cultivation but also offers a new perspective for understanding the relationship between virtue and the body.

4.3. The Expansion of the “Four Beginnings” and the Construction of the Virtuous Body

As mentioned in Section 2.2, Mencius put forward the concept of the “Four Beginnings” (四端 Si Duan), referring to four inherent moral emotions in human nature: the heart of compassion, the heart of shame, the heart of deference, and the heart of discernment between right and wrong. On the basis of clarifying that the “Four Beginnings” serve as the inherent moral starting points of humanity, this section focuses on exploring how to continuously expand them in daily life practices to construct a body behavior pattern that manifests virtue.

First, the heart of compassion (惻隱之心), which reflects sympathy, is the most fundamental moral perception of humanity. To expand and cultivate the heart of compassion, individuals can start from daily details. For example, they can actively participate in volunteer activities in the community, such as visiting the elderly in nursing homes regularly, listening to their stories, and helping them with some daily chores. When seeing homeless animals on the street, they can offer them food and water. Through these continuous practical actions, individuals can gradually strengthen their sense of compassion and translate it into real help. Mencius emphasized that the heart of compassion is not only an internal emotional response but also a vital means for externalizing virtue. He said: “When people suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they all experience a feeling of alarm and compassion. This feeling is not for the sake of currying favor with the child’s parents, not for seeking praise from their neighbors and friends, and not because they dislike the child’s cries. From this, we can see that if one lacks a heart of compassion, one is not human 今人乍見孺子將入於井，皆有怵惕惻隱之心。非所以內交於孺子之父母也，非所以要譽於鄉黨朋友也，非惡其聲而然也。由是觀之，無惻隱之心，非人也” (Mencius, 2A6). Here, Mencius uses a vivid example to illustrate that the heart of compassion is a universal moral instinct that drives us to feel sympathy and take action when we witness others in distress. The externalization of this emotion, through concrete actions to practice compassion, is precisely the process of constructing the Virtuous Body.

Second, the heart of shame (羞惡之心) serves as the basis for moral judgment. In the education system, schools can carry out moral discrimination classroom activities. Present real or simulated moral dilemma scenarios, such as a student seeing another student cheating in an exam but hesitating whether to report it. Guide students to use their “heart of shame” to make judgments and discussions. Teachers should timely guide and deepen students’ understanding of right and wrong. In family education, parents should lead by example. When making mistakes, they should frankly admit and reflect on them, setting a good example for their children. Let children imperceptibly strengthen their sense of shame and encourage them to transform this inner feeling into a definite rejection of bad behaviors, such as refusing to participate in school bullying and resisting dishonest behaviors. Through continuous cultivation in both school and family, the heart of shame can be effectively strengthened.

Third, the heart of deference (辭讓之心) embodies the moral principles of modesty and respect. In the process of moral cultivation, to expand the heart of deference, individuals can pay attention to details in daily life. For example, when walking in public places, naturally slow down and let others go first. In team cooperation, take the initiative to undertake tedious tasks and give honor opportunities to others. When communicating with others, use polite language and respectful gestures. A person who has long cultivated the heart of deference will emit an air of modesty and courtesy in his every move, making others intuitively feel his inner virtue.

Lastly, the heart of discernment between right and wrong (是非之心) represents the ability to distinguish between good and evil, which is the highest realm of moral cultivation. To expand this heart, individuals can read more classic works of philosophy and ethics, participate in in-depth discussion groups, and listen to different viewpoints and analyses. This can help them continuously improve their ability to distinguish right from wrong. When facing complex social phenomena, they can make rational judgments and choose moral actions. For example, when seeing false information spreading on the Internet, they can not only identify it but also actively refute it to guide the correct public opinion. By continuously cultivating the heart of discernment, individuals can fully externalize morality through bodily actions and ultimately achieve the highest unity of virtue and body in the process of “Jian Xing”.

The “Four Beginnings”, as the foundation of moral cultivation, through continuous expansion and nurturing, allow individuals not only to possess internal moral perception but also to externalize these moral emotions into concrete actions through bodily practice. As Yang Ru-bin noted: “Mencius said that when the night energy and the Four Beginnings’ hearts are fully expanded, the practitioner’s body will naturally transform, and their body will naturally emit a moral glow, radiating from their face and back. This is the ‘moral radiance’ that emerges after ‘Jian Xing’, which can be seen and felt without words” (Yang 1996, p. 57). In other words, through continuous self-cultivation and the practice of the “Four Beginnings”, individuals gradually construct a Virtuous Body that radiates moral light, transforming moral cultivation from an internal emotional experience into a visible manifestation through bodily actions in the external world.

4.4. Specific Forms of “Jian Xing 踐形” in Practice

“Jian Xing 踐形” (Embodying Virtue), as a key practical concept in Mencius’ theory of virtue, emphasizes the realization of virtue through the external expression of the body. In everyday social life, “Jian Xing 踐形” is not merely an individual practice of moral cultivation, but also closely tied to social responsibility and moral actions. Mencius believed that whether a person truly possesses virtue is not only determined by their internal moral emotions but also by whether they enact these virtues through concrete actions in their social life. Therefore, the specific forms of “Jian Xing 踐形” include not only personal daily behavior but also moral actions that involve assuming social responsibility and guiding societal values.

On the level of individual behavior, “Jian Xing 踐形” manifests as the externalization of inner virtue through one’s words, gestures, and actions. For example, a person with a heart of compassion naturally helps those in need through physical actions, embodying the Confucian spirit of “Caring for the elderly in your own family, and extending that care to the elderly in others’ families; caring for the young in your own family, and extending that care to the young in others’ families 老吾老，以及人之老；幼吾幼，以及人之幼” (Mencius, 1A7). A person with a heart of deference would show humility and respect in interactions with others, reflecting the principle that “the function of rites is harmony 禮之用，和為貴” (The Analects, “Xue Er”)—though not a direct quote from Mencius, it reflects the Confucian ideal of modesty. These specific behaviors are not only expressions of internal moral emotions but also crucial elements in the process of “Jian Xing”. In daily life, individuals continuously externalize the moral emotions associated with the “Four Beginnings” through bodily actions, gradually achieving the unity of virtue and body.

On the level of social responsibility, “Jian Xing 踐形” is reflected in the influence individuals exert on societal values through their moral actions. Mencius emphasized that a true sage not only possesses internal moral qualities but also leads and influences others through concrete social actions, as he stated: “A gentleman holds to his virtues and cultivates himself, and through this the world is at peace 君子之守，修其身而天下平” (Mencius, 7B32). An individual embodies benevolence by caring for others and upholding justice by taking actions that maintain social fairness—these are specific manifestations of “Jian Xing 踐形” in the realm of social responsibility.

Additionally, “Jian Xing 踐形” plays a role in the governance and administration of the state and society. Mencius believed that virtue is not only the goal of personal cultivation but also the foundation of effective governance. He noted: “A gentleman keeps benevolence in his heart, and ritual in his conduct. The benevolent love others; the respectful revere others. Those who love others will always be loved in return; those who respect others will always be respected in return 君子以仁存心，以禮存心。仁者愛人，有禮者敬人。愛人者，人恒愛之；敬人者，人恒敬之” (Mencius, 5A28). In governing a nation, the ruler’s virtue is expressed through practical actions, such as policies that care for the people with benevolence and justice, to create social harmony and stability. Thus, the virtue of rulers must also be realized through “Jian Xing”, where concrete actions and policies demonstrate their benevolence and righteousness, ultimately benefiting both the state and society.

In conclusion, the specific forms of “Jian Xing 踐形” include both the individual’s daily moral behavior and the assumption of social responsibility through concrete practices. By externalizing inner moral emotions through bodily actions, “Jian Xing 踐形” achieves the unity of virtue and body. In the interaction between the individual and society, it reflects Confucian moral ideals. This approach to embodying and externalizing virtue not only enriches the theoretical framework of Confucian moral cultivation but also provides profound insights for moral practice in modern society.

5. Virtue and the Body: Revisiting Mencius’ “Jian Xing” in Light of Western and Contemporary Philosophy

Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue (踐形)—the embodiment of virtue through moral action—presents an understanding of human nature that fuses moral development with bodily practice. Unlike the dichotomous view often found in Western thought, where mind and body are regarded as separate, Mencius envisions the body as integral to the realization of virtue. This section aims to explore the significance of jianxing by comparing Mencius’ philosophy with classical Greco-Roman ideas, especially their views on the body and ethics, and by engaging with modern theories of embodiment, such as those proposed by Maurice Merleau-Ponty. In doing so, we will demonstrate how Mencius’ concept of moral realization through the body remains relevant to contemporary philosophical and ethical discussions.

5.1. Mencius and the Body: Virtue as Embodied Practice

Mencius’ notion of jianxing goes beyond the mere intellectual or verbal articulation of virtue; it necessitates a physical manifestation of moral ideals. In Mencius’ view, virtue, particularly ren (仁), the benevolent virtue, cannot exist merely in thought or speech—it must be embodied through action. As Mencius asserts, “The human being, while it is virtuous in heart, must also demonstrate this virtue through the body” (Mencius 4A:1). This emphasis on the body as a medium for ethical realization contrasts sharply with the dualistic separation of mind and body found in ancient Greek philosophy.

For instance, Plato’s Republic delineates a sharp distinction between the soul and the body, often viewing the body as an impediment to the pursuit of the rational life (Plato 1969, Republic, Book 9, trans. Shorey). Similarly, Aristotle’s ethics, while more embodied than Plato’s, still focuses on the cultivation of virtues primarily within the realm of rational deliberation and moral choice, with the body playing a subordinate role (Aristotle 1980, Nicomachean Ethics, Book 2, trans. Ross). In contrast, Mencius argues for an intimate connection between moral development and the body, a perspective that blurs the boundaries between thought and action.

In the context of jianxing, the body is not merely the instrument of the soul but a co-actor in the moral journey. This view aligns more closely with the Stoic idea of the body as a site of moral discipline, where the development of virtue requires bodily practices that reinforce inner virtue. However, Mencius integrates this embodied virtue into a more holistic framework, where bodily actions are not just rituals but expressions of an innately cultivated moral disposition.

5.2. From Ancient Greece to Modern Philosophy: Revisiting the Body

The debate on the mind–body connection has evolved significantly in modern philosophy, providing a fertile ground for re-examining Mencius’ jianxing. Modern thinkers such as Maurice Merleau-Ponty have radically challenged the Cartesian separation of mind and body. In his Phenomenology of Perception, Merleau-Ponty (1962) asserts that the body is not a mere object in the world but a subject that interacts with the world in ways that shape perception and experience. This resonates with Mencius’ view that the body, through its actions, expresses and shapes moral virtues.

For Merleau-Ponty, the body is central to human perception and experience, offering a more integrated and existential view of human agency. Just as Mencius emphasizes that virtue is realized through bodily practice, Merleau-Ponty views the body as the locus of experience where the mind, world, and self meet. This perspective opens up a modern understanding of jianxing as an ongoing process where the embodied person is constantly engaged in moral action that shapes both their inner and outer world.

Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy suggests that embodiment is not only a matter of moving through space but of experiencing and making meaning of that space, which connects directly to Mencius’ view that moral action shapes one’s relationship with the world and others. In both philosophies, the body is not an external appendage to moral development; it is an active participant in the realization of virtue.

5.3. The Contemporary Relevance of Jianxing: A Cross-Cultural Dialogue

In contemporary discourse, the relationship between the body and moral practice continues to attract scholarly attention. The rise of body politics, gender studies, and the focus on the body as a site of identity and agency have brought to the fore the need for a deeper understanding of how bodies participate in ethical and social practices. In this regard, Mencius’ jianxing theory remains remarkably relevant.

In contemporary ethical thought, bodies are often viewed as both agents and subjects of moral actions, as well as objects of cultural and social construction. The intersection of moral and physical agency is crucial in areas such as environmental ethics, social justice, and bioethics, where physical embodiment is often a central concern. Mencius’ emphasis on moral embodiment offers a framework for addressing contemporary issues, such as the ways in which embodied practices (e.g., care, responsibility, activism) contribute to social change. This is particularly relevant in contexts where individuals or groups are marginalized, and their bodily actions—whether through protest, caregiving, or community-building—become essential to social transformation.

For example, the growing interest in embodied ethics in contemporary moral philosophy, which emphasizes how bodily experiences inform moral decision-making, is in direct alignment with Mencius’ focus on the body as integral to moral realization. In this context, jianxing offers a powerful model for understanding how individual and collective moral actions, rooted in bodily practices, can address modern social and ethical challenges, from environmental sustainability to the fight for racial and gender justice.

In Conclusion, this section has explored Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue as a bridge between Eastern and Western philosophical traditions, bringing together classical Greco-Roman thought, modern phenomenology, and contemporary ethical concerns. By comparing Mencius’ views with Plato’s and Aristotle’s conceptions of the body and virtue, and engaging with the modern body theories of Merleau-Ponty, this analysis demonstrates that Mencius’ philosophy offers profound insights into the embodied nature of moral life. Furthermore, the contemporary relevance of jianxing lies in its ability to address pressing ethical issues in today’s world, offering a means for reconnecting virtue with embodied practice in both individual and social contexts. Thus, Mencius’ concept of jianxing is not only a valuable component of his moral philosophy but also an enduring framework for understanding the role of the body in contemporary moral and ethical discourses.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue, centered around “Jian Xing”, emerges as a profound and far-reaching philosophical construct. It intricately weaves together the threads of moral cultivation and physical practice, presenting a holistic vision of human nature and the path to ethical fulfillment.

By delving into its theoretical underpinnings, we’ve seen how it is firmly rooted in the “Theory of Innate Goodness”, the “Four Beginnings”, and the concept of “Nourishing Qi”. These elements work in concert to establish the innate potential for virtue within every individual and offer a roadmap for its actualization. The body, in this framework, is not a passive vessel but an active agent. It transforms from a mere physical entity to a conduit through which inner virtues flow and manifest, bridging the gap between abstract moral ideals and concrete actions.

Comparisons with Pre-Qin Confucian understandings of the body and Western philosophical traditions, especially those of Plato, Aristotle, and Merleau-Ponty, have shed light on its uniqueness. Against the backdrop of Western dualism, Mencius’ emphasis on the unity of virtue and body stands out, challenging the age-old separation of mind and body. It provides an alternative lens through which to view moral development, one that places equal importance on the physical and the spiritual, and on internal intentions and external behaviors.

In contemporary society, the relevance of “Jian Xing” cannot be overstated. It addresses the very real challenges we face in moral education, social ethics, and leadership. It offers practical guidance for individuals striving to translate their moral beliefs into daily actions, for educators seeking to instill values in the next generation, and for leaders aiming to set a moral example. In the face of issues like environmental degradation and social inequality, it provides a framework for action, inspiring embodied practices that can effect real change.

Overall, Mencius’ Theory of Embodying Virtue is not a relic of the past but a living, breathing philosophy with the power to shape our present and future. It enriches our understanding of what it means to be human, to cultivate virtue, and to make a positive impact on the world through the unity of body and spirit. As we move forward, it beckons us to further explore and apply its insights, ensuring that its wisdom endures and thrives in the modern age.