The Pre-Dawn of the Three Caverns Thought: An Examination Based on Shangqing taiji yinzhu yujing baojue

Abstract

The emergence of the “Three Caverns” 三洞 thought was a critical step in the formation of medieval Daoism. It proposed the first viable approach to integrating emerging Daoist scriptural traditions, enabling the creation of the first canonical Daoist catalog, and laying the foundation for the compilation of the Daozang and the establishment of the Ordination Ranks 法位 system. Scholars generally agree that the Shangqing taiji yinzhu yujing baojue 上清太極隱注玉經寶訣 played a significant role in the development of the Three Caverns thought. However, research on the formation of this scripture remains lacking. This study fills this gap by confirming the composition of the scripture through two independent lines of evidence. Then, based on new insights into its composition, this study discusses the historical context of the Three Caverns concept in this scripture and its direct impact on Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–477)’s cataloging work. These discussions illustrate that, when confronted with the challenge posed by the newly composed Shangqing scriptures, the authors of the Shangqing taiji yinzhu yujing baojue employed the integrative approach commonly found in the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures to propose a more inclusive scriptural system. This approach played a crucial role in providing a theoretical foundation for the formation of medieval Daoism.

1. Introduction

The thought of “The Books of the Three Caverns” (三洞經典 Sandong jigndian, hereafter referred to as Three Caverns) is one of the significant legacies of the Daoist scripture creation wave that took place in the Jiangnan 江南 region during the early Six Dynasties 六朝 (220–589) period. As a bibliographic concept, it positioned three relatively new yet ambitious corpora of scriptures at the core of the Daoist scriptures, laying the foundation for reconstructing the Daoist canon in medieval times. These three corpora of scriptures are the Shangqing (上清 or Upper Clarity) scriptures, the Lingbao (靈寶 or Numinous Treasure) scriptures, and the Sanhuang (三皇 or Three Sovereigns) scriptures. Shortly after the formation of the concept of Three Caverns, it served as the foundation for the earliest Daoist canonical catalog of scriptures, Lu Xiujing’s Catalog of the Scriptures of the Three Caverns (三洞經目錄 Sandong jing mulu). Furthermore, the concept of the Three Caverns subsequently gave rise to a more extensive and hierarchical classification system of Daoist scriptures, including the Seven Parts (七部 Qibu) and the Thirty-Six Divisions (三十六部 Sanshiliu bu). These scripture classification systems collectively shaped the structure of Daoist canons throughout history (see Schipper and Verellen 2004, pp. 11–40).

However, the significance of the Three Caverns concept extends beyond a mere bibliographical classification system. It represents a pivotal step in consolidating the Daoist community during a new era and region grounded in newly composed scriptures and ideas. Consequently, this concept, along with a series of related concepts that emerged from it, became the cornerstone of the intricate system of Ordination Ranks (法位 Fawei) within institutionalized Daoism during the medieval period.1 It played a crucial role in defining the boundaries of Daoism and establishing the fundamental framework for the relationships and hierarchies between different groups of scriptures and traditions of practice within Daoism (Ōfuchi 1979, pp. 258–65).2

Early scholarship posited that the Three Caverns concept was first conceived and employed by Lu Xiujin 陸修靜 (406–477), the distinguished Daoist bibliographer of the Liu Song Dynasty (e.g., Fukui 1958, pp. 134–213; Chen 1963, pp. 1–2). However, since the 1980s, a series of studies have noted that the term “Three Caverns” (or related terms) and the parallel arrangement of the Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang scriptures—resembling the structure of the Three Caverns system—had already appeared in earlier Shangqing and Lingbao texts (Robinet 1984; Ōfuchi 1997). Consequently, Lu Xiujing should not be regarded as the originator of the Three Caverns concept. Instead, he adopted and further refined this concept by applying it to the compilation of a canonical catalog.

In research on the formation of the Three Caverns concept, one scripture, Shangqing taiji yinzhu yujing baojue 上清太極隱注玉經寶訣 (Precious Instructions on the Jade Scriptures, a Secret Commentary by the [Zhenren of the] Supreme Pole, hereafter referred to as “YZYJBJ”) has received particular attention. The YZYJBJ is a short scripture of one volume (卷, Juan) included in the Yujue 玉訣 (the Exegeses) category of the Dongxuan section within the Zhengtong Daozang 正統道藏, compiled during the Ming Dynasty. In this printed version included in the Daoist Canon, the title of the YZYJBJ was prefixed with the term “Shangqing”, which is a later misnomer. The YZYJBJ is one of the earliest Lingbao scriptures (i.e., the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures 古靈寶經). The catalog of Lingbao scriptures by Lu Xiujing, cited in the Dunhuang manuscript of Lingbaojing yishu 靈寶經義疏, classifies it under the “New Scriptures 新經” category, named Taishang yujing taiji yinzhu baojingjue 太上玉經太極隱注寶經訣 (Ōfuchi 1974, pp. 35–50).

Although it purports to be an instructional text 訣文 based on its title, the YZYJBJ is not an exegesis of any particular scripture but rather a relatively independent scripture. The text of the YZYJBJ can be divided into two parts. The first part comprises a brief preface and several paragraphs that begin with the phrase “The Taishang Yujing Yinzhu status 太上玉經隱註曰”. This section concludes with the statement, “Yinzhu daojing ends here 隐注道经毕矣”, marking the end of the main text of the scripture. According to the theology of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures, the original copy of this part is believed to have been preserved in the heavenly palaces. The second part consists of paragraphs beginning with “The Taiji Zhenren status 太極真人曰” and includes praises attributed to the Taiji Zhenren. Following the legends found in the Lingbao scriptures, this section should be regarded as an oral instruction imparted by Taiji Zhenren to a mortal who receives the scripture. This recipient could be Ge Xuan or potentially other Daoist aspirants who had previously engaged with the Lingbao scriptures before him. Despite the apparent division, the first and second parts were complementary, suggesting they were simultaneously established.

Within the text of the YZYJBJ, it is claimed that the scripture has the alternate title “The Scriptures of the Ritual for the [books of the] Three Caverns 三洞威儀經”. As this title suggests, one of the primary objectives of this scripture is to introduce the rites associated with the Three Caverns scriptures (as well as the Daode Jing 道德經3 and some other relatively minor scriptures), encompassing the rites of conferring and reciting scriptures4 among other ritual topics. In addressing these matters, the author of the scripture presents a mature and systematic understanding of the Three Caverns theory. Consequently, some studies have regarded this scripture as key evidence supporting the view that Lu Xiujing’s theory of the Three Caverns originated in the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures.

This conclusion appears correct, and we endeavor to substantiate it in the following discussion. However, avoiding overextending this inference is crucial. Specifically, it is important to recognize that this does not imply that the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures or their authors independently developed a systematic theory of the Three Caverns from an initial, rudimentary foundation. Isabelle Robinet (1984, pp. 75–86) proposed a more complex possibility: initially, the Dongzhen taishang suling dongyuan dayou miaojing 洞真太上素靈洞元大有妙經 (hereafter, Dayou Miaojing) employed the Three Caverns concept within the context of the Shangqing scriptures, which was then further developed by the Lingbao scriptures and applied across the Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang corpora of scriptures. Throughout this process, certain key ideas from Shangqing tradition were preserved. Although subsequent advances in the study of medieval Daoist scriptures (including both the Shangqing and Ancient Lingbao Scriptures) have rendered Robinet’s argument problematic, necessitating significant revisions,5 and her insights remain valuable. They remind us that the influence of Shangqing scriptures on the evolution of the Three Caverns concept was both continuous and substantial.

In summary, we argue that in the decades preceding Lu Xiujing’s compilation of the Catalog of the Scriptures of the Three Caverns, the authors of the Shangqing and Lingbao texts engaged in sustained and profound reflections on the systematization of Daoist scriptures. These reflections gave rise to various theories, subject to fierce competition and debate. Consequently, the mature theory of the Three Caverns should be viewed as a product of this intellectual competition rather than the proposition of any single school. The YZYJBJ preserved historical fragments of this competition as it approached its conclusion. It could even be suggested that the YZYJBJ was composed to resolve this competition. In pursuing this purpose, this text exhibits a unique character that distinguishes it from other Ancient Lingbao Scriptures. Most notably, the characteristics of Lingbao are conspicuously thin in the YZYJBJ, which incorporates numerous elements of the Shangqing tradition.

This characteristic of the YZYJBJ had already been noted by Ninji Ōfuji, who found it puzzling. He speculated that the author of this scripture intended to compose it from the broader perspective of the Three Caverns rather than from the narrower standpoint of the Lingbao tradition and, out of respect for the Shangqing scriptures—the first category in the Three Caverns—the text particularly emphasized Shangqing elements (Ōfuchi 1997, pp. 165–70). This inference aligns, to some extent, with Robinet’s perspective on the development of the Three Caverns’ thought within the Lingbao tradition, although it lacks sufficient evidence. Wang Chengwen, on the other hand, argues that this “mixture” reflects the inherent characteristics of Lingbao, particularly the features of the Three Caverns thought within the Lingbao scriptures. He further suggests that the conferral rituals associated with the scriptures of the Three Caverns in the Taizhen yudi siji mingke jing 太真玉帝四極明科經 (Sworn Code of the Four Poles of the Jade Emperor, hereafter referred to as SJMKJ) also emerged under its influence (Wang 2002, pp. 230–33). However, this interpretation fails to account for the distinctive nature of the YZYJBJ among the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures. These differing viewpoints are partially due to varying understandings of the time and background in which the related texts, particularly the YZYJBJ and relevant Shangqing scriptures, were written.

Fortunately, recent breakthroughs in the study of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures and early Shangqing scriptures provide new insights. Based on these new studies, it is now possible to explain the source of uniqueness in the YZYJBJ and further investigate the background and influence of the establishment surrounding the Three Caverns theory in the YZYJBJ. To achieve this, the first step is to clarify the establishment period of this scripture and its relationship with the Shangqing apocryphal scriptures such as the SJMKJ. This is the first issue addressed in this study.

2. The Composition Era of the YZYJBJ: An Analysis Based on Self-Administered Content

The YZYJBJ was anonymously cited in the Dongxuan lingbao shoudu yi 洞玄靈寶授度儀 (Ritual for the Transmission of the Corpus of Lingbao Scriptures), authored by Lu Xiujing (Lü 2018, 14). Based on previous studies, the latest possible date for the composition of the YZYJBJ can be approximated as before the 440s–450s CE (Liu 2018, pp. 54–56). Conversely, the earliest possible date for its establishment can be tentatively placed after 400 CE, when Ge Chaofu 葛巢甫 began composing the Lingbao scriptures. Although this time frame of a few decades seems relatively precise, it is important to recognize that this was a period of significant development for both Lingbao and Shangqing traditions. During these decades, a series of texts profoundly transformed the character of both the Shangqing and Lingbao traditions. Therefore, where possible, it is imperative to refine further and confirm the date of composition of the scripture. A passage in the YZYJBJ related to the transmission of scriptures may provide significant assistance in further clarifying the composition date of this scripture. This passage describes the ritual of transmitting scriptures in the absence of a master, a concept referred to as “self-administered” (自誓, or “self-karma” 自羯磨) in Buddhist literature, which we shall refer to here.

To the best of the author’s knowledge, the earliest mention of the self-administrated ritual in Taoist scriptures seems to be found in the YZYJBJ (YZYJBJ, p. 643) and the Shangqing Taishang huangsu sishisifang jing 上清太上黃素四十四方經 (Scripture of the Forty-four Methods on Yellow Silk, hereafter referred to as SSSFJ6), where the latter refers to it as “Hidden Oath and Profound Vow 隱盟玄誓” (SSSFJ, p. 74). In Buddhist literature, the self-administered ritual is primarily related to the receiving of Bodhisattva precepts 菩薩戒.7 The two earliest translated texts to mention the self-administered ritual are the Pusa dichi jing (菩薩地持經, T. 1581, p. 917) translated by Dharmakṣema (曇無讖 Tanwuchen, pp. 385–433) and the Pusa shanjie jing (菩薩善戒經, T. 1583, p. 1014) translated by Guṇabhadra (求那跋摩 Qiunabamo, pp. 394–468).8

Although the relevant texts differ in their wording and rituals, their core content remains remarkably consistent; they all address the issue of how to receive scriptures or precepts in the absence of a master. This consistency prompts an important question: what is the relationship between self-administered rituals in Buddhism and Daoism?

Historically, early Mahāyāna Buddhism was generally regarded as a non-mainstream tradition in India and Central Asia, rendering the challenge of being without a master a tangible reality. From a doctrinal perspective, such practices are theoretically permissible since the Bodhisattva precepts are ultimately received from the Buddhas and great Bodhisattvas rather than from ordinary individuals. Furthermore, the independent translations of the Pusa shanjie jing and Pusa dichi jing in distinct regions of southern and northern China both containing similar content further corroborate that the practice of self-administration was not an idea artificially introduced during their translation into Chinese. This conclusion is further reinforced by the corresponding content found in Xuan zang’s 玄奘 translation of the Yogācārabhūmi (瑜伽師地論 Yujiashidilun).

In contrast, the sudden appearance of such a ritual in Daoism, which traditionally emphasizes the sanctity of teacher–student transmission and the secrecy of scriptures, appears somewhat abrupt.9 The concept of scripture transmission in the Three Caverns scriptures is profoundly influenced by the southern Fangshi 方士 (recipe masters) tradition. Similar to the situation in the Fangshi tradition, the master is not only the bestower of scriptures but also bears the responsibility of assessing the disciple’s qualifications prior to transmission and evaluating them afterward (Lü 2008, pp. 75–77). Furthermore, the master would likely supplement the content of the scriptural texts in the form of oral instructions, guiding the disciple’s practice. This importance of the master in the Three Caverns scriptures is highlighted. For this reason, Zhengao states that “every practitioner must have a master 學者皆有師” (Zhengao, p. 517), and even the YZYJBJ emphasizes the principle that “if the scriptures are not received from a master, the divine will not respond 夫道經不師授,則神不行矣” (YZYJBJ, p. 643).

How then should we interpret the “masterless” scenario in the aforementioned two scriptures? While the YZYJBJ does not provide specific details regarding this situation, the SSSFJ provides a clearer explanation: it defines the “masterless” condition as one in which a practitioner’s devotion to their practice moves the immortals, resulting in a sudden encounter with divinely bestowed scriptures. This scenario might be likened to the account in the Taishang lingbao wufu xu 太上靈寶五符序 (The Five Numinous Treasure Talismans of the Most High), where Yu the Great 大禹 “suddenly received 忽得” the scripture (Taishang lingbao wufu xu, p. 316). In addition, some early literature concerning the transmission of the Sanhuangwen 三皇文 also contains similar accounts. Lü Pengzhi 呂鵬志 suggested that the emergence of such situations may be related to the “celestial script (Tianwen 天文)” nature of the Sanhuangwen (see Lü 2008, p. 56). It is important to note that the process of receiving the scriptures in these accounts must involve the approval and revelation of deities and the texts transmitted are said to be copies hidden in the mountains rather than those circulating among mortals. Thus, the description of the “masterless” scenario in the SSSFJ is actually based on the mythology surrounding the emergence of the scriptures, rather than something that frequently occurs in the real world.

If we accept this inference, then there would be no need for scriptures to specifically design rituals for such a situation, even if they are interested in mentioning these mythical scenarios. Nevertheless, both scriptures prescribe such rituals similar to Buddhist texts that mention self-administration. It is also conceivable that if self-administration were to become an acceptable option in practice, it would negatively impact the Daoist transmission order. Perhaps for this reason, the SSSFJ suggests that “even after receiving the scriptures, one should continue to practice them 虽已受经, 亦常行之”, thereby attempting to transform the ritual into a method of cultivation. However, later Daoist texts indicate that the self-administered ritual, whether as a method of receiving scriptures or as a cultivation practice, did not significantly influence Daoism.10

The analysis above suggests that the sudden interest in the “masterless” scenario in certain Daoist scriptures composed during the fifth century, along with the creation of specific rituals for this situation, likely stems from an attempt to imitate the highly popular Buddhist Bodhisattva precepts of the time, rather than from addressing any genuine doctrinal or practical needs.

Although the concept of self-administration in Daoism may be considered a fleeting phenomenon, it provides crucial insights into determining the period of composition of these scriptures. Among the two Buddhist texts mentioned above, Pusa dichi jing was the first to be translated. While no clear record indicates when this sūtra was introduced to southern China, based on the general timeline of scriptures translated by Dharmakṣema, Funayama Tōru speculates that it may have reached the south around the 7th (430) or 8th (431) years of the Yuanjia 元嘉 (424–453) period. Initially, the Bodhisattva precepts had minimal impact in south China until Guṇabhadra’s arrival in Jiankang 健康 in 431, where he translated the Pusa shanjie jing and planned to administer the Bodhisattva precepts to Emperor Wen. However, since Guṇabhadra passed away in the same year, it was not until after 440 that the Bodhisattva precepts were widely implemented (Funayama 1995, pp. 45–50).

As Zücher (1980, pp. 84–147) argued, the authors of the early Lingbao scriptures were not experts in Buddhist literature. Still, they incorporated Buddhist-related elements from scriptures widely circulated in the south from lay Buddhism.11 Considering the history of the spread of relevant texts in southern China, it is difficult to imagine that Daoist scriptures would have adopted the concept of self-administration from the Pusa dichi jing before 431, a time when the Bodhisattva precepts had yet to exert significant influence in the region. Therefore, 431 is considered the earliest possible date for the formulation of this scripture. This places YZYJBJ’s composition within a time frame, possibly only two decades or so before Lu Xiujing compiled the Dongxuan Lingbao Shoudu Yi.

3. The Composition Era of the YZYJBJ: An Analysis Based on Its Relationship with the Shangqing Apocrypha

Although we have tentatively dated the composition of the YZYJBJ to be between 431 and approximately 450 CE, this estimation necessarily involves a certain degree of speculation. Therefore, it may be more prudent to temporarily set aside this hypothesis and investigate whether a corroborating conclusion can be reached by examining the text’s relationship with the Shangqing Apocrypha.

The term “apocryphal scriptures 偽經” was first employed by Tao Hongjing 陶弘景 (456–536) within the Shangqing tradition to refer to the new Shangqing texts composed after the original revelations received by the medium Yang Xi 杨羲 (330–?).12 The most prominent representative of these apocryphal texts is the works attributed to Wang Lingqi 王靈期. According to Tao Hongjing, after Wang Lingqi obtained the “true scriptures 真經” from Xu Huangmin 許黃民 (361–429), he composed dozens of new Shangqing texts to compete with the widely popular Lingbao scriptures of the time. Although Tao Hongjing did not acknowledge the sacredness of these texts, it did not prevent them from achieving significant success, and they continued to be transmitted over the centuries.

The catalog of scriptures authored by Wang Lingqi has not been documented in historical records. Michel Strickmann noted that records related to Wang Lingqi’s scriptural activities mention annotations by Xu Rongdi 許容弟 (?–435), which he considered an essential marker of Wang Lingqi’s authorship. Accordingly, Strickmann (1977, pp. 24–29) successfully identified several texts as works of Wang Lingqi. Isabelle Robinet concurred with this assessment and, in her research, identified a significant number of Shangqing scriptures composed after the revelations received by Yang Xi. However, she did not specifically attempt to determine which of these later texts were authored by Wang Lingqi.

Recently, two scholars have sought to deepen our understanding of Wang Lingqi’s scriptural activities in their doctoral dissertations. Zhang Chaoran 張超然 proposes that in his competition with the Lingbao scriptures, Wang Lingqi systematically constructed and organized the Shangqing texts using concepts such as the “Three Extraordinary Writings 三奇寶文” and the “Thirty-One Volumes of Extraordinary Scriptures 三十一卷獨立寶經”. In this process, he may have revised the Dadong zhenJing 大洞真经 and composed the other two marvelous texts, the Dayou Miaojing and the Dongzhen gaoshagn yudi dadong ciyi yujian wulao baojing 洞真高上玉帝大洞雌一玉檢五老寶經 (hereafter, Ciyi jing). He also authored new Ke texts 科文 (Code Texts), such as the SJMKJ.13 He also provided a new catalog of Shangqing scriptures and guidelines for their transmission and application (Zhang 2007, pp. 253–310). Li Jing 李静 further clarified the chronology and characteristics of Wang Lingqi’s scriptural activities and, by confirming Wang Lingqi’s authorship of the aforementioned scriptures, created a more comprehensive catalog of apocryphal texts possibly authored by Wang Lingqi. These findings offer new insights into the compilation of Daoist scriptures during the first half of the fifth century (Li 2009, pp. 11–76).

The text of the YZYJBJ lists a series of scriptures, most of which belong to the Shangqing tradition. For example, the preface of the YZYJBJ includes the following passage:

Opening the eight-colored vessels of scriptures, presenting the supreme treasures, and holding and reciting the esteemed scriptures of the Dadong, Dongxuan, and Daode zunjing, as well as the Hidden Chapters of the Eight Purities, Golden Truth and Jade Brilliance, Annihilate Demons and Dispel Spirits, The Summoning Immortals and Pacing the Void, and Scripture on Wings for Flying.

開八色之蘊，陳無上之寶藏，而執讀大洞洞玄，道德尊經，八素隱篇，金真玉光，消魔散靈，招仙步虛，飛行羽經.

Among the texts cited above, “Dadong 大洞” likely serves as a collective term for the Shangqing scriptures, while “Dongxuan 洞玄” functions similarly for the Lingbao scriptures. The Daode Jing holds special significance, being considered comparable in status to the Three Caverns scriptures, and is thus listed after the Dongxuan scriptures. The subsequent content pertains to a different tier of scriptures, enumerating individual scriptures such as the Basu 八素 (referring to 八素真經服日月),14 Jinzhen Yuguang 金真玉光 (referring to 金真玉光太上隱書), Xiaomo 消魔 (referring to 消魔智慧), Buxu 步虛 (referring to 昇玄步虛章), and Feixing Yujing 飛行羽經 (referring to 白羽黑翮飛行羽經). Among these, only the Buxu scripture belongs to the Lingbao system, whereas the others are found among the Shangqing scriptures listed in the SJMKJ. Another passage mentions the Xiaomo zhihui yuqing jinzhen dongjing 消魔智慧玉清金真洞經, which includes several scripture titles that can be reconstructed as Xiaomo zhihui 消魔智慧, Yuqing yinshu 玉清隐书, and Jinzhen yuguang 金真玉光, all of which are found in the SJMKJ and the Jiuzhen mingke 九真明科.15

As can be seen from the passages cited above, the YZYJBJ enumerates a broad spectrum of Shangqing scriptures spanning various types. Additionally, in other sections, the text also references other scriptures within the Shangqing tradition, such as the Huangting neijing jing 黃庭內景經. By contrast, the only Ancient Lingbao Scripture explicitly mentioned in the text is Shengxuan buxu zhang.

The previous comparison shows a strong correlation between the scriptures listed in the YZYJBJ and those listed in the SJMKJ and the Jiuzhen mingke. Likewise, these two texts were not the result of the revelations received by Yang Xi; they were compiled later, representing a significant development in the Shangqing scripture system. Recent research on Wang Lingqi’s scriptural activities suggests that these texts can be attributed to him. The relationship between the YZYJBJ and the Shangqing Ke texts, particularly the SJMKJ, is closely tied to the history of the establishment of the Three Caverns concept and the creation of the Lingbao scriptures, highlighting their significance for further investigation.

The following evidence further demonstrates the close relationship between the YZYJBJ and SJMKJ:

(1) The YZYJBJ states that the Dadong zhenjing is also known as the Taizhen daojing 太真道經. This claim can be found in Volume Three of the SJMKJ as well as in the SSSFJ, which is also suspected to have been authored by Wang Lingqi (Li 2009, pp. 57–59).

(2) The ritual for the recitation of the Dongzhen Jing 洞真經 (referring to the Shangqing scriptures) and Dongxuan Jing 洞玄經 (referring to the Lingbao scriptures) in the YZYJBJ corresponds to the ritual guidelines for scripture recitation in the SJMKJ, as shown in

Table 1. Textual comparison of the YZYJBJ and SJMKJ.

YZYJBJ, 643

SJMKJ, 420

Taishang Yujing Yinzhu status: “When reciting the Dongzhen jing, one should tap the teeth 36 times and swallow the saliva 36 times, first visualizing the hundred divines and ten thousand true [person] of the [method of] Huifeng hunhe diyi, and then recite the Dongzhen Jing”. Taishang Yujing Yinzhu status: “When reciting the Dongxuan jing, one should tap the teeth 36 times and swallow the saliva 36 times, visualizing the five-colored Qi from the five organs and infusing the essence of the five stars, then recite the scripture”. 太上玉經隱注曰：當讀洞真經，叩齒三十六通，曰（咽）液三十六過，先存回風混合帝一百神萬真，然後詠洞經。 太上玉經隱注曰：讀洞玄經，叩齒三十六下，咽液三十六過，存五藏五色之氣，上注五星之精，而讀經。

Taixuandu siji mingKe status: “When reciting the Da Dong Zhen Jing of Thirty-Nine Chapters with the precious names of one hundred divines of the [method of] Huifeng hunhe diyi, as well as the Yujian ciyi wulao baojing, Dongxuan suling dayou miaojing, and Taidan yinshu... Tap the teeth 36 times, swallow the saliva 36 times, visualize the Qi of five-colored light within the five organs, and infuse the essence of the five stars”. 太玄都四極明科曰：讀《大洞真經三十九章》回風混合帝一百神寶名，《玉檢雌一五老寶經》、《洞玄素靈大有妙經》、《太丹隱書》……叩齒三十六通，咽液三十六過，存五藏之內，有五色之光氣，注五星之精。

. In particular, the method of Huifeng hunhe, the Qi of the five-colored (light), and the essence of the five stars appear together in both YZYJBJ and SJMKJ.

(3) The YZYJBJ states, “When receiving the scriptures, each character must be checked thrice. An error in one character reduces the lifespan by one year. Beyond this, the penalty increases; adding or omitting a character will also reduce one’s lifespan by one year 受經皆比字三校，誤一字，滅壽一歲，過此計加之，增損一字，亦奪一歲” (YZYJBJ, p. 645). Correspondingly, Volume One of the SJMKJ contains the statement, “When receiving the Shangqing and Lingbao scriptures... each character must be checked three times; it must not be carelessly revealed or treated with negligence 凡受上清、靈寶經……皆當比字三校，不得輕洩漏慢” (SJMKJ, p. 655).

The above evidence demonstrates a close connection between the two scriptures but does not clarify how the origin of this connection came about. Wang Lingqi was inspired to compose new scriptures after witnessing the popularity of the Lingbao scriptures. Thus, it seems reasonable to infer that Wang Lingqi may have referenced the YZYJBJ when composing the SJMKJ, resulting in the observed correlation. However, upon further analysis of the YZYJBJ’s citations of the Shangqing scriptures, we believe this view cannot be substantiated.

Notably, the scripture of Jinzhen Yuguang was mentioned twice in the YZYJBJ. Although this title was already referenced in texts dating back to the original Shangqing revelation, it originally referred to a talisman rather than a scripture. However, in the context of the YZYJBJ, it denotes a scripture, likely corresponding to the Shangqing Jinzhen yuguang bajing fei jing 上清金真玉光八景飛經 (The Scripture of the Eight Effulgences of Jade Brilliance and Golden Truth) found in the Daoist canon. Given that this scripture includes annotations by Xu Rongdi, it can be reasonably identified as a text authored by Wang Lingqi. This suggests that the author of the YZYJBJ was already acquainted with some of the “Apocryphal” Shangqing scriptures created by Wang Lingqi.

Second, the content cited in Table 1 pertains to visualization practices. The method of Huifeng hunhe appears in the revised text of the Dadong zhenjing (the so-called large edition 大本) rather than belonging to the teachings from the time of Yang Xi’ and Xu Mi’s revelations. Additionally, the YZYJBJ includes a visualization practice involving the Sansu yuanjun (三素元君), which involves visualizing the Sansu yuanjun in the Jinhua Palace in the form of an infant. Sansu yuanjun is a significant female deity in the Shangqing scriptures. The depiction of the Sansu yuanjun as an infant first appears in Ciyi jing. This scripture is one of the “Three Extraordinary Writings” in the new Shangqing scripture system, and its author is most likely Wang Lingqi. In this context, it is understandable that the author of the SJMKJ would incorporate these practices into the text. However, the Lingbao scriptures do not provide detailed explanations of these visualization practices, making it difficult to imagine that they were initially conceived by the authors of the Lingbao scriptures and later adopted by those of the Shangqing Apocrypha. The YZYJBJ requires visualization of the Qi of five-colored light and infuses the essence of the five stars while reciting the Dongxuan scriptures (Table 1). The ancient Shangqing scripture Shangqing taishang basu zhenjing 上清太上八素真經 (The Scripture of the Eight Purities), believed to date back to the time of the original revelation of Shangqing scriptures, includes a primary practice focused on visualizing the infusion of the essence of the five stars 注五星之精, which likely served as the basis for this section. In the SJMKJ, this visualization is applied to secondary-level Shangqing scripture subordinate to the Dadong zhenjing. The YZYJBJ employs it as part of the ritual for reciting the Lingbao scriptures, possibly because of the importance of the number five in Lingbao teaching. However, I did not find similar practices in other Ancient Lingbao Scriptures.

Furthermore, there are two examples related to the second volume of the Dongzhen taishang badaomingji jing 洞真太上八道命籍經 (hereafter, BDMJJ). First, the YZYJBJ contains a chant for opening the vessel of the Dongzhen scriptures (YZYJBJ, p. 643), which is nearly identical to the passage found in the BDMJJ (p. 516), with only minor variations in a few characters. Second, the YZYJBJ instructs practitioners to “always visualize the head as bright green like jade, hands as red like cinnabar, and feet as white like snow” 常存头正青如碧玉，两手如丹，两脚如雪 (YZYJBJ, p. 644). This visualization practice is identical in content and expression to a visualization described in the BDMJJ during the ritual of ascending the high seat to deliver a sermon (BDMJJ, p. 516).

Finally, the YZYJBJ includes numerous uncredited references to Shangqing scriptures that can be traced back to their original revelation of the Shangqing scriptures, such as the aforementioned Shangqing taishang basu zhenjinge. The manner in which these references were used did not differ significantly from the examples previously discussed.

In summary, the evidence indicates that the compiler of the YZYJBJ utilized a series of early Shangqing scriptures and the Shangqing Apocrypha in the same manner, using them as sources for the text. Therefore, the composition of this work undoubtedly followed Wang Lingqi’s activities. According to previous research (Li 2009, pp. 37–38), Wang Lingqi’s scriptural activities mainly occurred between 405 and 435 CE (the year of Xu Rongdi’s death).16 The YZYJBJ was compiled after these scriptures were largely completed and had begun to exert some influence. This means that its composition could not have occurred earlier than the 430s when Xu Rongdi began promoting Wang Lingqi’s scriptures. This timeline coincides with the conclusions drawn in the previous section regarding the relationship between the YZYJBJ and Buddhist texts, which is not likely a coincidence.

Based on the two lines of evidence discussed above, it is suggested that YZYJBJ was likely composed after the 430s as an Ancient Lingbao Scripture. During its composition, this text was heavily influenced by the Shangqing Apocrypha, authored by Wang Lingqi. This influence is important for understanding the formation of the concept of the Three Caverns and the early history of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures. The following section provides a preliminary discussion on this topic.

4. On the Three Caverns Concept in the YZYJBJ

A comparison between the YZYJBJ and Shangqing Ke texts reveals similarities in their nature and the issues they primarily address. However, there are significant differences in their understanding of the term “Three Caverns” and in their interpretation of the relationships among the three corpora of scriptures referred to as the Three Caverns. Therefore, the YZYJBJ should be viewed as a response from the Lingbao tradition to the new Shangqing Ke texts. The direct motivation for this response stems from the appearance of the Shangqing version of the Three Caverns Theory in the Shangqing Apocrypha.

It is well established that the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures were composed relatively recently compared to the early portions of the Sanhuang and Shangqing scriptures. Therefore, they were uniquely positioned to clarify the relationships among these scripture systems. Some of the earlier Ancient Lingbao Scriptures composed the initial concept of the Three Caverns. The order of these three categories of scriptures follows the same sequence as in later periods, with the Shangqing scriptures placed first, followed by the Lingbao scriptures, and finally, the Sanhuang scriptures. The reason why the authors of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures adopted this order is not entirely clear, but it certainly does not imply that the Shangqing scriptures were considered the most sacred. Relevant texts often emphasize the exceptional transcendence of the Lingbao scriptures. For example, in the preface to the Jinlu jianwen jing 金籙簡文經 (The Scripture of the Tablets of the Golden Register),17 the Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang scriptures are listed in order. However, the text suggests that while the Shangqing scriptures can only “liberate the Seven Generations of ancestors and extend blessings to one family 拔度七玄，福流一門”, the Lingbao scriptures, described as the “Great Vehicle 大乘”, can “universally save both celestial beings and humans, extending blessings to all 普度天人，福逮一切” (Lü, forthcoming; Wang 2013, pp. 20–39).

Under the influence of the Lingbao scriptures, the concept of the Three Caverns was introduced and transformed into the newly composed Shangqing scriptures of the early fifth century. However, during this process, terms related to the Three Caverns were separated from their original association with the three scripture categories. Instead, the term related to the Three Caverns was repurposed as an alternative name for the new core of Shangqing scriptures, known as the “Three Extraordinary Writings”.18 These scriptures were considered the most revered group of Daoist scriptures, possessing a unique status that transcended other scriptures (Robinet 1984, pp. 76–85; Li 2009, pp. 60–63). Additionally, the new Ke texts, represented by the Jiuzhen mingke and SJMKJ, further addressed the relationship between the Shangqing, Lingbao, and Sanhuang scriptures. For instance, the Jiuzhen mingke, part of the Dayou miaojing, introduced a hierarchical framework of upper-, middle-, and lower-grade scriptures. Within this hierarchy, the Shangqing scriptures occupy the upper grade, accessible only to advanced practitioners. Among these, the “Three Extraordinary Writings” were so exalted that they could only be transmitted to practitioners who had already attained the status of the Zhenren 真人 (the True Person). By contrast, the Lingbao scriptures were classified as “middle grade and suitable for attaining Earthly Immortality 中品之妙，下方（不妨）地仙” and possessing relatively limited functions (Dayou miaojing, p. 414). The SJMKJ further reinforced and formalized this hierarchical relationship through ritual regulations. For instance, the established rituals varied in the ceremonies used to transmit and recite scriptures. In the SJMKJ, reciting the Dadong zhenjing required thirty-six teeth taps, while other Shangqing scriptures required twenty-four, and the Lingbao and Sanhuang scriptures were considered lower, with only twelve taps. Additionally, the direction faced during scripture recitation also varied, with the Shangqing scriptures recited facing north, whereas the Dongxuan (i.e., Lingbao) scriptures facing east (SJMKJ, p. 420). Thus, the Shangqing version of the Three Caverns theory leveraged the advantage of the Shangqing scriptures being placed first in the original Lingbao theory of the Three Caverns, transforming it into a hierarchy of scriptural status. This significantly elevated the position of the Shangqing scriptures within the Daoist canon and bestowed upon them a transcendence far above that of the Lingbao and Sanhuang scriptures. This was likely an outcome that the early authors of the Lingbao scriptures did not foresee when they first proposed the Three Caverns theory.

In response to this new Shangqing version of the Three Caverns theory, the YZYJBJ also acknowledges the distinction between upper-, middle-, and lower-grade scriptures, applying different ritual ranks accordingly. However, in direct opposition to the Shangqing Apocrypha, the YZYJBJ asserts that all Three Caverns scriptures and the Daode jing belong to upper-grade scriptures. Consequently, the rituals outlined in the YZYJBJ prescribe a uniform direction—northward—for the master to face when transmitting the Three Caverns scriptures, aligning with the protocol for upper-grade scripture transmissions in the SJMKJ. Additionally, the YZYJBJ eliminated the hierarchical distinctions between the Shangqing and Lingbao scriptures in ritual practice. For example, the number of teeth taps during scripture transmission and recitation was standardized to thirty-six, consistent with the ritual for reciting the Dadong zhenjing in the SJMKJ. The lower-level ritual of twelve teeth taps was instead reserved for the recitation of the “Ascension Scriptures 昇仙之經”. This approach not only defends the upper-grade status of the Lingbao scriptures but also implies that the spiritual attainment facilitated by the Lingbao scriptures is equivalent to achieving the status of a True Person rather than merely that of an Immortal 仙人. However, it is essential to note that the YZYJBJ no longer emphasizes the transcendence of the virtues of the Lingbao scriptures. In other words, while the YZYJBJ implicitly (and possibly due to circumstances) conceded the leadership of the Shangqing position within the Three Caverns, it refused to acknowledge that the Shangqing scriptures were superior in rank to the Lingbao and Sanhuang scriptures. Instead, the YZYJBJ presents a relatively more balanced system of the Three Caverns.

The author of the YZYJBJ confronted a compelling trend in the Shangqing scriptures, a different situation from what earlier Ancient Lingbao Scriptures faced. This was likely because of the rapid spread of the new Shangqing scriptures created by Wang Lingqi and others. The strong influence of Shangqing ideas within the YZYJBJ should be understood within this context rather than as a mere continuation or elaboration of doctrinal ideas already established in the early Ancient Lingbao Scriptures.

Although the YZYJBJ extensively references Shangqing scriptures, the author does not seem to fully understand the new Shangqing scripture system constructed in the Shangqing Apocrypha. For example, the YZYJBJ states that the Dadong zhenjing, also titled the “Taizhen daojing” or the “Taiqing shangdao guantian neijing shangpin”, consists of ten volumes. The Golden Elixir scriptures in Shangqing comprise seven volumes. The Gaoshang damiao dadan xiaomo zhihui da dong zhenjing, which contains thirty-nine chapters, is a scripture of the highest Shangqing teachings, the subtlest words of ultimate truth, and the marvelous scripture of immortal flight “《大洞真經》，或曰《太真道經》，或曰《太清上道觀天內經上品》，凡有十卷。上清金丹之經七卷。其《高上大妙大丹消魔智慧大洞真經》，三十九章，上清之高旨，極真之微辭，飛仙之妙經也” (YZYJBJ, p.645). This brief passage reveals two errors.

First, as mentioned earlier, the alternative name “Taizhen daojing” appears in both the SJMKJ and SSSFJ. However, in these two Shangqing scriptures, the name Dadong zhenjing refers explicitly to the scripture known as “Dadong zhenjing with thirty-nine chapters”. In contrast, the YZYJBJ uses the title “Dadong zhenjing” to refer to the entire Shangqing scripture collection, which includes the “Da Dong Zhen Jing with thirty-nine chapters”, namely the Gaoshang damiao dadan xiaomo zhihui dadong zhenjing. This means that in the YZYJBJ, the name “Taizhen daojing” is applied as an alternate title for the entirety of the Shangqing scriptures. Such usage is clearly incorrect or, at least, inconsistent with the understanding of these titles within the Shangqing scriptures themselves.

Second, the name Taiqing shangdao guantian neijing shangpin 太清上道觀天內經上品 does not appear in any Shangqing scriptures. However, a similar reference can be found in the Baopuzi neipian 抱樸子內篇, where it is stated, “The Taiqing guantian jing consists of nine sections. It is said that the upper three sections must not be taught or transmitted; the middle three sections are not suitable for transmission in the world and should be submerged beneath the Three Springs; the lower three sections are the authentic Elixir Scriptures of the upper, middle, and lower grades, comprising three volumes 《太清觀天經》有九篇，云其上三篇，不可教受；其中三篇，世無足傳，當沉之三泉之下；下三篇者，正是丹經上中下，凡三卷也” (抱樸子內篇校釋，p. 76). In a citation found in the Yunji qiqian雲笈七籖, the “nine sections” are referred to as “ten sections”, and “the upper seven sections must not be taught or transmitted” (Yunji qiqian, p. 467). The Taiqing huantian jing mentioned in the Baopuzi neipian refers to the text for refining the Taiqing Divine Elixir 太清神丹, which corresponds to the Shangqing Golden Elixir scriptures described in the YZYJBJ. Therefore, it is highly likely that the author of YZYJBJ was inspired by this passage in the Baopuzi neipian, rewrote it, and used it to describe the Shangqing scriptures. However, even with some modifications, it still does not originate from the Shangqing scriptures themselves, and it diverges significantly from the understanding of the Shangqing scriptures held by its authors.

This suggests that the author of the YZYJBJ had a limited understanding of the most central scripture among the Shangqing scriptures, the Dadong zhenjing, as well as of the newly proposed canonical system introduced in the Shangqing Apocrypha. This limitation may be attributed to the author of YZYJBJ’s lack of access to or sufficient resources for thoroughly studying and comprehending the newly composed Shangqing scriptures.

5. The Influence of the YZYJBJ on Lu Xiujing

Lu Xiujing’s inclusion of the YZYJBJ in the catalog of Lingbao scriptures suggests that he had encountered this text. However, there are few explicit references to the YZYJBJ in his surviving works. Nonetheless, the uncredited citations in the Dongxuan lingbao shoudu yi may indicate that the version of the YZYJBJ available to Lu Xiujing was likely similar to the extant text. Lu Xiujing held significant importance in the historical development of the Lingbao scriptures and the integration of Daoist scriptures during the Six Dynasties. He collected scriptures from various traditions and authored numerous related works.19 He also compiled separate catalogs of the Lingbao scriptures and the Three Caverns scriptures, thereby perfecting the classification system of Daoist scriptures and laying the foundation for the compilation of Daoist canons by later generations. In this regard, Lu Xiujing’s work was likely significantly influenced by the YZYJBJ.

Lu Xiujing’s general understanding of the Three Caverns can be found in the Dongxuan lingbao shoudu yi biao 洞玄靈寶授度儀表. In this text, he criticizes the prevailing ordination practices of his time: “Ever since Lingbao has come to lead this generation, some who have transmitted it have conducted joint ordinations in all the Three Caverns, taking a single oath on the same ritual stage. [In this way], the refined and the rough have become mixed; the great and the petty are circulated without distinction. Sometimes, when some receive only the Dongxuan [i.e., Lingbao] section but put higher rites into practice … Others absorb the Officers of the Yellow and the Red of the lower way (i.e., Heavenly Master Daoism 天師道) so that they descend into base locales and perform improperly 自靈寶導世以來，相傳授者，或總度三洞，同壇共盟，精粗糅雜，小大混行。時有單受洞玄，而施用上法……或采搏下道黃赤之官，降就卑猥” (Lü 2018, p. 3). The “single oath on the same ritual stage” refers to ordinations encompassing all Three Caverns scriptures simultaneously. Although Lu Xiujing disagreed with this ordination method, he recognized the structure of the Three Caverns scriptures and their superiority over the rituals of Celestial Master Daoism 天師道. However, even among the Three Caverns scriptures and registers, there are distinctions between higher and lower ranks. In Lu Xiujing’s view, the Lingbao scriptures were not the “highest” among the Three Caverns; therefore, there were issues with employing “higher rites” when transmitting the Dongxuan scriptures. The “higher rites” mentioned here likely refer to rituals that transmit the Shangqing scriptures. Therefore, Lu Xiujing likely also agreed that the Shangqing scriptures were the most esteemed among the Three Caverns. When comparing these views with the discussion of the Three Caverns in the YZYJBJ, there is a clear consistency.

As mentioned earlier, the YZYJBJ itself was, in part, a response from the Lingbao scriptures to the growing prominence of the Shangqing scriptures. Consequently, the Three Caverns theory presented in this scripture is more integrative and conciliatory, reflecting a balanced approach to the Three Caverns doctrine that better mirrors the status and circulation of the scriptures at that time. Lu Xiujing’s emphasis on and citation of the Three Caverns concept in the YZYJBJ was likely motivated by theological and practical considerations. Lu Xiujing’s incorporation of this concept solidified it as a core component of the Daoist canonical system.

There is also the matter of how Lu Xiujing classified the Lingbao scriptures. It is commonly believed that he divided the Lingbao scriptures into two categories: the “old scriptures 舊經” and the “new scriptures 新經”. However, based on Lu Xiujing’s explanations in the Dunhuang manuscript of the catalog of the Lingbao scriptures, we propose a further subdivision of the new scriptures into two subcategories: “Essential Instructions on Precepts Received by the Duke-Immortal Ge 葛仙公所受教誡訣要” and “New Scriptures on Practices [as Spoken by the Duke-Immortal Ge] [葛仙公]所說行業新經”. The first category primarily includes instructions that explain the old scriptures, while the second has a biographical nature, similar to the Buddhist Jātaka literature. This classification is also directly reflected in the catalog of the New Scriptures by Lu Xiujing; using Taishang xiaomo baoshenanzhi zhihui benyuan dajie 太上消魔寶身安志智慧本願大戒 as the dividing line, the scriptures preceding it clearly belong to the category of essential instructions, while the latter scriptures are all biographical works (see Liu 2018, pp. 262–64). Therefore, it is likely that Lu Xiujing’s classification of Lingbao scriptures follows a two-tiered, three-category structure.

The YZYJBJ likely influenced this classification system. The first part of the YZYJBJ provides a classification that addresses the issue of transmission, while the second part supplements this by explaining the transmission of two types of texts: the “Separate 分傳 “ Instructions (as opposed to the instructions attached to the scripture as the second part of the YZYJBJ) and the Xianren benye zhuan 仙人本業傳 (the biography of the Immortals’ original acts), also referred to in the text as “Daoji jing” 道跡經 (the scriptures of Daoist traces). The Separate Instructions correspond to the “Essential Instructions on Precepts Received by the Duke-Immortal Ge”, while the Daoji jing corresponds to the “New Scriptures on Practices [as Spoken by the Duke-Immortal Ge]”. These texts are considered less sacred than the primary scriptures; thus, the ritual standards for their transmission are lower. However, the text still emphasizes that a master must transmit these texts, and their ritual grade roughly corresponds to that of the middle-grade scriptures, meaning that they broadly retain a scriptural nature. When combined with the classification system outlined in the main body of the YZYJBJ, this structure is almost identical to the classification of Lingbao scriptures outlined in the catalog of Lingbao scriptures by Lu Xiujing. This classification is not observed in other Ancient Lingbao Scriptures, which typically contain only preliminary forms of such divisions. For instance, in the Xianren qingwen benxing yinyuan zhongshengnan jing 仙人請問本行因緣眾聖難經,20 the Immortal Duke Ge states, “on the fifteenth day of the lunar month, one should perform fasting in a quiet chamber, and recite the Daoist scriptures received and Daoji of the various Immortals...天師言月旦十五日，能齋於靜室，讀所受道經及諸仙道跡……” (Taishang Dongxuan Lingbao Benxing Yinyuan Jing, p. 129) This suggests that it can be seen as a binary division between scriptures and Daoji. Therefore, the classification method for Lingbao scriptures adopted by Lu Xiujing was likely derived from the YZYJBJ.

The YZYJBJ did not limit this two-tiered, three-category system to the Lingbao scriptures but extended its application to the Three Cavern scriptures. Unfortunately, we cannot determine whether Lu Xiujing adopted a similar structure when organizing the Shangqing and Sanhuang scriptures.

Lu Xiujing played a significant role in integrating Daoist scriptures during the Six Dynasties. He collected many texts from various traditions, organizing and enriching them through the compilation of catalogs and the establishment of rituals. In terms of the relationship between the Three Caverns scriptures and the structure of the Lingbao scriptures, Lu Xiujing seems to have been greatly influenced by the YZYJBJ. Of course, the ideas presented in the YZYJBJ were not created in a vacuum. The concept of the Three Caverns originated in the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures but was later adapted and transformed by the newly composed Shangqing Apocrypha. The Three Caverns theory in the YZYJBJ represents a compromise with the Shangqing scriptures and can be seen as a conclusive proposal that emerged after decades of intense competition. The classification system of scriptures, instructions, and hagiographies in the YZYJBJ likely developed within the Lingbao scriptures, where it was refined and associated with corresponding rituals. Notably, the YZYJBJ did not limit this classification system to the Lingbao scriptures, which naturally brings to mind Gu Huan’s 顧歡 work on the Shangqing scriptures, titled the Daoji Jing. Therefore, the subsequent influence of this classification method on Daoist bibliographic studies, particularly on Lu Xiujing’s Catalog of the Scriptures of the Three Caverns, warrants further investigation.

6. Conclusions

Daoist scriptures’ emerged during the transitional period between the East Jin (317–420) and Song (420–479) dynasties in southern China. For approximately one century, many highly influential scriptures were produced. These scriptures can be divided into different systems, such as Shangqing and Lingbao. However, the creation of these texts was not entirely independent within each system, resulting in a highly complex setting. This complexity was likely even more challenging for Daoists of the time, who faced not only the issues of classifying and organizing scriptures but also the practical task of defining Daoism and interpreting the relationships between different Daoist traditions. The Three Caverns theory emerged as an effective solution to these needs.

However, before the fully mature concept of the Three Caverns was proposed, various texts had already engaged in a long-term exploration of a classification system for Daoist scriptures. The YZYJBJ played a crucial role in this process.

In this study, we employed two different approaches to determine whether the composition of the YZYJBJ should be dated between the 430s and approximately 450 CE, when the Dongxuan Lingbao Shoudu yi was compiled. Based on this foundation, we examined the background and key features of the Three Caverns concept in the YZYJBJ offering a preliminary assessment of the scripture’s impact on Lu Xiujing.

We argue that Wang Lingqi, the prominent author of the Shangqing Apocrypha, was motivated to compose his scriptures in response to the flourishing Lingbao tradition. This suggests that, in the early fifth century, the Lingbao scriptures temporarily overshadowed the ancient Shangqing texts. However, once the Shangqing Apocrypha gained widespread popularity, the Shangqing tradition regained momentum. It emerged as a formidable force, proposing a new Three Caverns concept entirely based on Shangqing-centrism. This pressure compelled the Lingbao tradition to respond. The most representative text for this response is the YZYJBJ. Building upon the already popular Ancient Lingbao Scriptures and Shangqing texts, it constructed a highly inclusive new Three Caverns theory, which likely aligned with the prevailing understanding of the time and was more widely accepted. Through Lu Xiujing’s subsequent adoption and development, this theory was further refined, ultimately forming the cornerstone of the Daoist canonical system. In this sense, the concept of the Three Caverns in YZYJBJ can be seen as a pre-dawn light to the more fully developed Three Caverns theory.

The YZYJBJ absorbed substantial content from the Shangqing scriptures to an extent reminiscent of the strong Buddhist influences found in other Lingbao scriptures. These two phenomena have several similarities.21 Both forms of borrowing, whether from Shangqing or Buddhism, sought to create a new and more inclusive system by integrating other scriptural and philosophical systems into the foundation of Lingbao. This syncretic approach was crucial to the Lingbao scriptures’ important role in the development of Daoism during the Six Dynasties. However, unlike other Lingbao texts that emphasize the superiority of Lingbao over Buddhism, the YZYJBJ placed greater emphasis on adjusting internal relationships within different Daoist traditions. Perhaps this shift can be seen as an essential step in further defining the boundaries of Daoism. In a certain sense, it can be seen as another perfect embodiment of the spirit of the Lingbao scriptures.

The findings of this study lead to two major conclusions. First, the teachings of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures did not evolve in isolation but rather through continuous interaction with external influences. In many cases, this evolution involved compromising under external pressure and the timely adjusting of their doctrines. Therefore, overemphasizing doctrinal consistency with the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures may obscure their historical context, hindering a deeper understanding of their role in the evolution of Daoism during medieval times. Second, the emphasis on external factors in some of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures does not necessarily indicate a change in the authorial community or their foundational beliefs. For example, although many Shangqing elements appear in the YZYJBJ, the authors seemed to have had a very limited understanding of the later Shangqing texts. To move beyond these somewhat overly simplistic explanations and further investigate the development of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures, it is necessary to combine new findings from other fields and delve deeper into the background of each of the Lingbao texts. This effort will not only enrich our understanding of the Lingbao scriptures but also provide new revelations about the overall history of Daoist development during the medieval period.