Introduction to “Protestant Christianity in South Korea: The Dynamic Relationship Between Church and State”

The study of Korean Protestantism can be traced back to the writings of missionaries in the late 19th century. Few spiritual, social, political, or economic phenomena associated with societal modernization have inspired a historiography as multifaceted, complex, and diverse as that of Korean Christianity, particularly Protestantism. Indeed, alongside the development of Korean Protestantism itself, we find a rich historiography of Korea and Asia within the context of Protestant Christianity, encompassing fields such as sociology, religious studies, philosophy, anthropology, political science, and economics. Over time, this body of research has increasingly embraced intercultural and interdisciplinary perspectives, reflecting themes of globalization. To grasp the broad spectrum of issues related to this topic, one only needs to consider, for instance, Andrew Eungi Kim’s recent comprehensive study “The Rise of Protestantism in Modern Korea: A Sociological Perspective” (Kim 2022).

This Special Issue provides fresh insights into a wide range of topics related to Korean Protestantism, including modernization, gender studies, the relationship between Western classical learning and the activities of Protestant missionaries, comparative studies of Christianity and traditional Asian spiritual teachings, and the uniquely Korean dynamics of new religious movements. The articles included in this Special Issue adopt a methodologically innovative approach that addresses the constant fluidity of social and intellectual processes. This perspective enables an understanding of Protestant Christianity’s role in Korea as a unifying force among different spiritual traditions, a mechanism for social stabilization in a transitional society, a bridge between universal and local elements, and a phenomenon that simultaneously encompasses diverse and often contradictory orientations, each contributing to societal evolution.

1. The Dialectic of Worldly and Unworldly Christianity

The early spread of Christianity in Korea, especially through Protestant missions, was primarily driven by “unworldly” or transcendent ideals, with a focus on spiritual salvation and the establishment of religious practices. However, as Christianity grew in influence within South Korean society, its role evolved. The church began to engage more actively with societal issues and political movements, transitioning to a more “worldly” form of faith. This shift was particularly evident during the period of military dictatorship when Christian leaders played a crucial role in advocating for democracy, economic development, and human rights. Scholars such as Hyaeweol Choi highlight this transformation, illustrating how Christianity in South Korea became deeply intertwined with the nation’s socio-political landscape (Choi 2010, 2020).

The role of Christianity in South Korea’s modernization cannot be viewed solely in the context of religious beliefs or quantitative indicators, nor by describing societal and cultural developments while ignoring the society’s own contradictory internal processes and the ever-changing diversity of realities. Like any spiritual teaching, it can occupy both a “position” as aligned with institutions and an “opposition” as critical of those institutions (see Kim and Connolly in this volume). Moreover, its representatives can interpret the message of the teachings in various ways, meaning that formal association with Christianity (in this case, Protestantism) tells us little about the beliefs of the members of society representing that religion (see Kim and Connolly in this volume). By adopting a dialectical perspective on the interaction between worldly (institutionally affiliated) Christianity and unworldly (rebellious and countercultural) Christianity, the process of Korea’s modernization in the context of Protestantism becomes much clearer, even in relation to recent developments (attitudes to COVID-19, etc.). Moreover, by methodologically applying this perspective, it becomes easier to predict the future trajectories of Protestantism, understanding that its evolution never unfolds in a mechanically proportional way. Instead, a variety of new factors can redirect it in entirely different directions, revealing new challenges and solutions. Moreover, this insight provides a new perspective for understanding and utilizing the entire body of classic research on Korean Protestantism, including works by Timothy S. Lee, Robert E. Buswell Jr., Seong-Won Park, Sebastian C. H. Kim, and other authors.

Regarding the complex role of the Korean Protestant Church, one is reminded of Kim Jin-ho’s comprehensive analysis, published in 2012, which remains no less relevant today and offers a precise assessment, stating that “Politics becomes social spiritualization when it, rather than turning the neighbor into enemy, turns the enemy into a neighbor, creating a zone of communication between neighbors, and functions as a social act and strategy that forges a frontier zone. In contrast, the transformation of the neighbor into an enemy is no different from a faith of social anti-spiritualization. Given this, today’s church, seeking political empowerment, must advocate for the social spiritualization of the church rather than the sanctification of society” (Kim 2012). The contribution of Kim and Connolly’s article in this volume, utilizing the interaction between worldly and unworldly Christianity, lies in creating a diagnostic template for analyzing the situations generated by institutional and countercultural Christian groups.

2. Protestant Christianity as a Mediator of Diverse Spiritual Teachings

Research on Korean Christianity (including Protestantism) primarily focuses on the genesis of this tradition and the synthetic worldview generated by Korean Christianity, taking into account its development in close connection with local traditions, such as shamanism. The role of Christianity in the interconnection and creative interpretation of various East Asian teachings is more often explored in studies dedicated to individuals. Paradoxically, through their engagement with Christian kenosis and apophatic theology, thinkers such as Ryu Yongmo (Tasŏk) (1890–1981) were able to skillfully interact with analogous concepts from Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism (see Kļaviņš in this volume). In Ryu Yongmo’s worldview, the concepts of emptiness and nothingness—which are fundamental to Eastern philosophies such as Śūnyatā in Buddhism as well as Western spiritual thought—serve as a crucial framework for examining the intersections of various philosophical and spiritual traditions. This is particularly relevant considering that Protestantism in Korea also emphasizes nothingness as a pathway to humility, based on biblical teachings about the renunciation of worldly desires. Alongside the works of Halla Kim, Heup Young Kim, Junghwan Park (see in this volume), and others on Ryu Yongmo, the juxtaposition of the mindset of this Korean Christian thinker with that of his European counterpart, Isaac Jacob Schmidt (1779–1847), presented in this Special Issue, offers a deeper philosophical understanding of Christianity’s (specifically Protestantism’s) role as a mediator in intercultural studies and the dialogue between Europe and Asia.

3. The Koreanization of Protestantism in South Korea Through Messianism and Millenarianism

The Koreanization of Protestantism in South Korea has been a complex process from the very beginning of Western Protestant missionary activity. It encompasses various themes, including adaptation to the specific characteristics of Korean society by absorbing elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, and shamanism. Equally significant, the Koreanization of Protestantism is tied to Protestant support for Korean nationalism during the Japanese colonial period (1910–1945), the role of the evangelical church in South Korea’s distinctive social and economic transformation, and the religious quest for a new identity in the context of emerging globalization. Authors such as Jinseok Seo (Seo 2019) and Andrew Eungi Kim and Joon-sik Choi (Kim and Choi 2015) have studied the process of religious indigenization in Korea as well as the intersection of Christianity and Korean spirituality. New religious movements are a particularly significant topic in this context, especially concerning the phenomena of messianism and millenarianism. Both phenomena, characteristic of Europe since the Middle Ages and later reaching America, also directly influenced Korea, particularly through early American religious radicalism. This influence, carried forward by the religious awakening movements of Protestantism (the Great Awakening), reached Korea in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, largely through the efforts of American missionaries (see Kļaviņš in this volume).

In this Special Issue, an exceptional case study of messianism and millenarianism is provided through an exploration of the ideology of the Victory Altar group. Founded in 1981 by Cho Hee-Seung, this group postulates its leader as the universal Messiah and presents distinctive claims, such as the biological immortality of “neohumans”, the Hebrew genealogy of Koreans linked to the saga of the Lost Tribe of Dan migrating from Israel to Korea, and the designation of Koreans as “the chosen people” (see Rigal-Cellard in this volume). In East Asia, where European imperialism was relatively weak, syncretic movements have been particularly influential (Fernández-Armesto and Wilson 1996). Western-inspired messianism has been present in East Asia since the 19th century, as seen in the leaders of the Taiping Rebellion in China and the Donghak Peasant Uprising in Korea, who were, for example, perceived as messianic figures carrying forward a divine mission. The spiritual framework of all these movements reflects the response of the people of China and Korea at the time against corruption, exploitation, and foreign domination and shaped their ideals within religious constructs. However, when we look at the later sects and movements that emerged in South Korea, there are notable differences in the social and political context of their messages. The Victory Altar, which is more focused on eschatological matters, contrasts, for example, with the Unification Church, which is deeply involved in global politics and American ideology. One of the most peculiar aspects of this movement is the denigration of Jesus Christ as a false prophet, placing him beneath the movement’s founder, Cho Hee-Seung. Equally peculiar is the movement’s absolute universalism, proclaiming universal salvation not only for its followers but for all humanity, with the chosen Korean nation’s messiah as the prophet. And while this movement combines elements of Christianity, Buddhism, and Korean shamanism, its true phenomenon lies in the demonstration of the often-suppressed “true superiority” of the Korean nation, which also manifests as the belittling of the God of foreigners, replacing Jesus with Cho (see Rigal-Cellard in this volume). The above indicates the potential for a synthetic adaptation of Western-inspired religious fundamentalism and nationalism within a different cultural context. The result is an extraordinarily distinctive cultural hybrid that, under certain conditions, could create a feedback loop capable of capturing a relatively broad international audience.

4. Western Influence and Eastern Interpretation

We certainly cannot underestimate the significance of Western learning in East Asia, particularly when considering the role of Jesuits in fostering cross-cultural exchanges in China. Similarly, the second wave of Western knowledge transmission, beginning in the early 19th century and initiated by Protestant missionaries and their intensive translation of religious texts, according to Yi Zhang, laid the groundwork for a profound intellectual shift. As Zhang notes, “Translation, which was rarely seen as a form of work or scholarship worthy of respect in the past, had become the focus of intellectuals who saw it as essential to China’s self-strengthening” (Zhang 2018, p. 274). Undoubtedly, Protestant missionaries also played a highly effective role in Korea, as evidenced by their initiatives in publishing as well as the establishment of social centers, schools, universities, hospitals, and clinics (see Lihua, Jingyi, and Lifang 2024 in this volume). However, despite many similarities, the impact and outcomes of Protestant missionary activities in Korea and China differed and have remained distinct to this day. If the 20th century in Korea could be characterized as a “Protestant Christian victory march” (Kļaviņš 2021), the situation in China was notably different. Joseph McCabe, in his 1927 work, even emphasizes that “the Christian religion has, even after four centuries, not taken root in China” (McCabe 1927, p. 44). The authors involved in this Special Issue explore this question, asking whether developments in China during the same period reflect broader trends across East Asia.

The case of Korea was undoubtedly influenced by the psychological resonance of Christianity with the local, widely practiced shamanism as well as by the profound breakdown of social norms and structures caused by colonial Japanese rule in Korea, leading to a perception of Christianity as salvation and hope on both the national and personal level (see Lihua, Jingyi, and Lifang 2024 in this volume). In China, where Confucianism fostered a predominantly intellectual and state-oriented environment, there was limited space for the individualistic and personal emphasis of Protestant Christianity, apart from its contributions to education and ethical teachings. Instead, Chinese intellectuals increasingly embraced European secular and empirically oriented philosophies, such as Marxism, integrating Western thought with China’s traditional philosophical systems. Evaluating the influence of secularism or religion in modernization processes, we see that in very similar “Confucian” societies, the roles of Confucianism and Christianity could be completely different. Only comparative studies (such as this Special Issue comparing the situations in China and Korea) can help us understand the historical dynamics of the East Asian region in all its diversity. In this regard, there is still much work to be done in future research, remembering Hyaeweol Choi’s conclusion that “The problem with most representative debates on the topic of secularism lies in the fact that those debates are largely based on Euro-American histories and societies centered on religious traditions, especially Catholicism and Protestantism. With a few exceptions, there has been a pronounced lack of analysis focusing on non-Western societies for historical and sociological comparison” (Choi 2020, p. 280).

5. Protestant Christianity as a Binding Element on the Path Toward a Socially Appropriate Model of Society

Christian communities in Korea have been pivotal in advocating for women’s rights and addressing their needs, both in historical and contemporary settings. Their initiatives have primarily concentrated on providing educational opportunities, empowering women to assume leadership roles, and tackling pressing social issues affecting women’s well-being. At the same time, these transformative efforts have ignited discussions regarding the complex interplay between tradition, modernity, and religion in defining the position and contributions of women in present-day Korea. In this Special Issue, Andrew Eungi Kim and Daniel Connolly examine the broader intersection of Protestant Christianity and Korean modernity, highlighting how these efforts redefined women’s roles and contributed to modernization (see Kim and Connolly in this volume). However, this topic still requires serious research both in the context of the past and the present. More nuanced studies are necessary to fully understand the complex relationship between Protestantism, women’s roles, and broader societal transformation in both historical and contemporary frameworks. By addressing painful issues in contemporary South Korea, such as the attitude towards unmarried women, the situation of orphans, adoption possibilities, public baby boxes, etc., Ramona F. Kovacs demonstrates that the involvement and support of Protestant Christians, such as Jusarang Community Church, indicate that in South Korean society, Christianity continues to shape the societal framework in a unique way, particularly as South Korea remains in a state of transformation, searching for its social model in many areas (see Kovacs in this volume).

This Special Issue reveals several important aspects that deepen our understanding of Protestant Christianity’s role in South Korea. Future research is likely to focus on a cross-disciplinary approach linking society, economics, culture, religion, and philosophy in broader comparative studies of Protestantism in East Asia and other global contexts, especially as South Korea navigates its place in an increasingly globalized world.