Nonreligious Self-Transcendent Experiences Occurred in Religious Contexts: A Reflection on Religion, Science, and Human Potential

Abstract

Self-transcendence has been extensively studied and discussed among scholars, both theoretically and empirically. However, further academic inquiry into self-transcendent experiences (STEs), particularly their nature, religious implications, and spiritual benefits, is still needed. This paper undertakes a qualitative exploration of the topic, phenomenologically analyzing the author’s first-person STEs within Buddhist and Christian contexts. In addition to personal journals and reflections, the dataset includes email exchanges with and reports to supervisors, as well as comparative insights drawn from testimonies shared by individuals of various religious backgrounds. The findings suggest that while religion may sometimes inhibit its adherents from experiencing STEs, it can also serve as a catalyst for such experiences among nonreligious individuals. Furthermore, the universal nature of STEs, which transcends cultural and religious boundaries, has the potential to promote interfaith dialogue and provide a theoretical framework for fostering religious harmony. Data on STEs could also act as a bridge connecting science with other forms of human knowledge, enabling shared discourse and offering a complementary perspective for understanding the world. Finally, a proposed mechanism of STEs highlights their role in achieving lifelong peace by balancing physical and mental needs, while also offering insights to help individuals maximize their potential and lead fulfilling lives.

1. Introduction

Self-transcendence has emerged as a significant topic across various disciplines, including nursing theory, developmental psychology, gerontology, personality theory, psychiatric genetics, and positive psycholog (Frankl 1966; Maslow 1964, 1969, 1971; Reed 1991; Reed and Haugan 2021; Cloninger et al. 1993; Levenson et al. 2005; Levin and Steele 2005; Wong 2016; Gordon 2024). It has been studied as a measurable personality trait (Cloninger et al. 1993), as a key component of wisdom (Levenson et al. 2005), and as a developmental process in later life (Reed 1991; Reed and Haugan 2021), mainly in Western contexts (Garcia-Romeu et al. 2015, p. 2). Early scholarship also explored both the pathological dimensions of self-transcendence (Freud [1930] 2002) and its role as a fundamental factor in human development and meaning-making (Frankl 1966; Maslow 1964, 1971). Despite these foundational contributions, the phenomenon of self-transcendent experiences (STEs), particularly their positive impacts on individual and societal well-being, remains underexplored and warrants further investigation (Garcia-Romeu et al. 2015, p. 12; Yaden et al. 2017, p. 11).

While some quantitative research employing questionnaires has been conducted, such methods often fall short in capturing the depth and complexity of STEs. Qualitative research is thus recommended as the most optimal approach because “at its core self-transcendence is a subjective phenomenon that cannot be reduced to physiological and neurological correlates” (Kitson et al. 2020, p. 20). This study adopts a qualitative methodology, drawing primarily on the author’s first-person accounts of STEs elicited in three main contexts: Vietnamese Theravada Buddhist mindfulness practice, Christian practice, and Christian theology. Many of these STEs occurred during the author’s encounter with an epistemic crisis between mid- and late 2015. The long-term influence of these STEs will also be examined.

2. Methodology

Over the past decade, the influence of Christian theology has always been present in my thinking—vague in semantics yet deeply rooted in emotion. I have not studied theology as a scholar, nor am I a Buddhist, but the combination of the theories and practices of these two religions had led me to believe in a “perfect religious combination” that I firmly embraced1. I, therefore, take this opportunity to respond to the call for contributions to the Special Issue on Religious and Theological Interactions in East Asia by conducting this study.

The qualitative data used in this research were not originally created for research purposes; instead, they consist of personal journals reflecting my initial epistemic crisis, which lasted from approximately May to December 2015. Additionally, certain writings that help verify the research validity, such as graduate assignments for university; shared notes on social media; and email exchanges with my Theravada Buddhist mindfulness mentor—Bhikkhu T.—and my close friend Bhikkhu J., are included. Conversations with friends and colleagues of various faith choices are also considered to support several points. Although these individuals are not intentionally invited to be research participants, their insights on their STEs are worth mentioning.

Apart from sources that validate the objectivity of this paper, several reasons explain why the author’s personal experiences can serve as major data for an academic study. First, autoethnography is a recognized research method that allows scholars to “expose confusion, problems, and dilemmas in life. Personal agonies, usually hidden from public view, are often subjects of confessional and emotive writing” (Chang 2016, p. 145). Furthermore, the descriptive-realist narrative can be combined with analytical-interpretive writing in a confessional-emotive style (Chang 2016, p. 149) to provide context for experiences and to examine their short-term and long-term effects on the experiencer. Second, the field of religion and spirituality lacks sufficient first-person experiential data that offer deeper insights into religious experiences and beliefs—insights that may be inaccessible to and immeasurable by outsiders (Knott 2009). Lastly, the author draws inspiration from other scholars, such as William James, Carl Jung, Viktor Frankl, and Abraham Maslow, who used their personal experiences to develop and strengthen their arguments on human psychological constructs. For these reasons, I believe that utilizing personal experiences for this study is valid.

3. Self-Transcendent Experiences in Buddhist and Christian Contexts

“What is ‘such experience?’”, a 64-year uncle asked me a couple of months ago when we had a deep conversation on our spiritual experiences, which made me think in the moment myself, wondering how I should name such experience, which I would analyze for this theology-related study:

“Have you ever experienced this?” He asked. “I felt so peaceful, so light, forgot everything, and just enjoyed that moment. It happened when I was young. I was in the forest, waiting for others to come back to conduct some tasks we were assigned. But after that moment, I left… and I never regretted that decision. I have always wanted to experience that again, but I cannot”. (S., male retired carpenter, aged 64).

Searching for academic terms, I encountered phrases such as peak experience, holy/pious/sacred experience, and mystery experience. I eventually decided on the term self-transcendent experience (STE), which is most commonly used nowadays to refer to experiences of transcending the self. Interestingly, many people I have talked to also cannot name such experiences, even though they have had them at some point in their lives—like the 64-year-old uncle and myself. This is particularly true in socialist Vietnam, where conversations on religion and spirituality are uncommon, and mental health is still not properly cared for.

In general, self-transcendent experience refers to a temporary psychological state characterized by a perceived connection to something beyond the individual’s usual sense of self. This “something” may include other individuals or objects and can be perceived in religious or secular contexts. In such a state, a dissolution of the boundaries between the self and the “other”—something beyond the self—often occurs. While such experiences may arise from spirit possession, substance use, or experimental conditions, this study does not encompass those specific domains.

STEs can be achieved through various activities such as listening to music, being in nature, or practicing religion and spirituality. The most common constructs incorporating self-transcendent aspects include mindfulness, flow, peak experiences, mystical-type experiences, and a number of positive emotions such as awe and love (Yaden et al. 2017). Throughout my life, I have experienced most of these self-transcendent moments. However, the intensity and impact of these experiences vary depending on the context. In this paper, I will phenomenologically analyze three STEs that occurred during my very first epistemic crisis. Although I am nonreligious, all of these STEs happened in Buddhist and Christian contexts.

Buddhist Mindfulness Practice. In 2009, after a near-fatal accident, my close friend J. reflected on life and death, which eventually led him to become a Theravadin. He followed Bhikkhu T. and practiced meditation at the Sen Monastery in a forest in northern Vietnam2. In 2011, I had the opportunity to visit Sen, meet Bhikkhu T., and begin my very first Theravada mindfulness practice. However, I practiced without faith and without regularity until J. was ordained to become a monk in Myanmar in 2015. His confirmed faith and self-transcendent experiences convinced me of the power of mindfulness, but I soon found myself in a crisis.

Why did I fall into an epistemic crisis? As a person who had always been curious about human life and the universe, I studied philosophy for my bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Hanoi, Vietnam, despite my parents’ objections because they did not understand philosophy and how I could make a living with that discipline. I used reason to see things and did not easily follow any spiritual traditions without being fully convinced. J. was my soulmate, with whom I could share any spiritual concerns. He had also been a university lecturer in mathematics before going to Myanmar for his ordination. His experiences and thoughts, therefore, significantly influenced me.

After J.’s email about his ordination and stronger confirmation of the magical power of mindfulness, I began practicing seriously on a daily basis. One night, while practicing continuous mindfulness (chánh niệm miên mật) for hours, I experienced a separation between my body and my mind. My body seemed to cease to exist. That moment, for me, was a self-transcendent experience (STE1), which made me firmly believe in mindfulness for the very first time in my life. There were no gods or any supernatural elements present. I could feel such a moment by my own senses: being detached from my body, feeling overwhelmed, emotional, and inclusive. At first, I was scared because I had heard that prolonged meditation could lead to tẩu hoả nhập ma3. Therefore, I did not dare to enter that state again until I consulted Bhikkhu T.

I began to better comprehend Buddha’s ideas of impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (anatta) through my practices. However, doubts about the essence of human knowledge started to discourage me from studying. For instance, I realized that “me” was not what my physical body was all about. Everything became vague at that time. Moreover, I was advised not to read too much Buddhist doctrine and to focus solely on practice. Bhikkhu T. once explained to me that many bhikkhus were illiterate and only knew scripture just enough to practice, yet they still achieved high levels of enlightenment4. As a novice practitioner, I was confused and wondered: “Why should I learn if human knowledge is unnecessary and everything is impermanent and unreal?” One day at school, I was in a class when doubt possessed my mind, distracting me from the lecture. That distracting moment—which I still remember clearly and will never forget—seemed to mark the peak of my epistemic crisis.

How did I overcome that crisis? While STE1 marked the beginning of my crisis, the crisis was gradually resolved by other STEs. It seems that those STEs gave me guidance for what to do next and satisfied “rational me”, particularly regarding problems that neither human language nor invisible supernatural entities could resolve.

Prior to STE1, I was confused by the concept of the inner voice discussed by Parker Palmer in the books we read for a course in Autumn 20145. I did not know how to literally listen to my inner voice or what the inner voice actually meant. It was not until I joined a Quaker Clearness Committee in December 2014 that I truly comprehended the idea of the inner voice, thanks to another self-transcendent experience (STE2). Although STE1 happened after STE2, I will discuss the STEs that occurred in Christian contexts together to show how they helped me perceive myself and others in a new way.

Christian Practices. Three classmates and I joined a Quaker Clearness Committee (CC) at a cathedral in the city in late 2014 even though we are not Quakers. Each of us had the chance to be the focus person once. The focus person was supposed to be asked honest and open questions by other committee members to help him/her discover his/her inner wisdom. The process was confidential, and the focus person had the right to answer or not answer other members’ questions, as the ultimate goal was to support him/her in having a dialogue with his/her inner self. There were no judgments, curious questions, or unnecessary comments.

As a Vietnamese, I was not familiar with such a practice, but the environment was very friendly, and I felt comfortable. The room at the cathedral where we met was cozy, with soft candlelight. At one moment of silence, while the CC was still active, I suddenly encountered profound feelings of compassion for my peers—an experience I identify as STE2. My mind became unexpectedly light, and my perception of them transformed: they looked so different from how I had previously perceived them. My emotions were strongly positive, and I felt a special connection with them. After this experience, which lasted less than a minute, I did not say anything to them, but I realized that something within me had changed. Since then, the concept of the inner self or inner voice became more apparent to me. I realized that my mind had been too busy to acknowledge the existence of others and to see their beauty as human beings.

Previously, I often found myself using the word help excessively6. Similar to most Vietnamese people around me, I used to think that we had to give advice, take action to help others when needed, and be talkative to show our love and care. This bias blinded me from appreciating others for who they truly were and respecting their silence. This STE2 revealed a new truth to me—a new way of living. Why do I call it a new truth? Only after STE2, and similar subsequent moments, did I learn to value silence for myself and for others. For the first time in my life, I felt more comfortable interacting with others and being alone with myself, without the compulsion to take action. This truth, though I could perceive it theoretically, requires daily practice and lifelong commitment.

In Vietnam, as I had observed, listening had not been emphasized as a skill that needed to be learned or cultivated. I was amazed at how crucial listening was for healthy relationships with both the self and others. Although I did not experience another transcendent moment in a similar context, a pastoral therapy training I attended later helped me deepen my understanding of the power of silence and listening. It became evident to me that I felt transcended only in circumstances I encountered for the first time—circumstances that led me to discover a new truth. I do not claim such truths to be ultimate or absolute, but at least, they offer me opportunities for growth and correction. This new perception influenced my understanding of human nature, grace, and sin7, particularly thanks to another self-transcendent experience (STE3) I had while reading the work of Christian theologians 8 during my epistemic crisis.

Christian Theology. In socialist Vietnam, at least during my college years, theology was neither studied nor mentioned. I had read some Christian theologians as an undergraduate and graduate student of philosophy, but only their philosophical ideas were discussed. My earlier STEs were often related to philosophy books, such as reading Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics late at night in 2008 or John Stuart Mill’s Considerations on Representative Government in 2011. I felt overwhelmed, even cried, and felt as though I had reached something beyond myself. I shared some insights about these experiences on social media9, as I felt so sacred at that time. My decision to study philosophy was also prompted by a self-transcendent moment while accidentally reading a Marxist book on materialism and idealism in Vietnamese in 2005, even though I did not fully understand Marx’s ideas. These experiences seem to belong to the “awe” category of STEs—“like one’s first encounter with a theory that seems to explain almost everything” (Yaden et al. 2017, p. 5). However, these experiences did not have a lasting impact on me until I read the work of Christian theologian Paul Tillich.

Returning to my crisis of understanding: as mentioned earlier, I was extremely discouraged from learning new knowledge. Coincidence or fate or whatever a believer may want to call it, I encountered Tillich’s Systematic Theology exactly when I was lost after STE1, and it played a significant role in helping me emerge from the crisis. My email exchanges with Bhikkhu T. occurred between May and December of 2015, while I read Systematic Theology as part of a course from September to December of the same year.

It is worth noting that since my first time reading Paul Tillich, I have not revisited his work10. To preserve the rawness of the experience, I will first describe STE3 and its initial impact on my perception of human nature and other ideas, then verify my understanding using references from my submitted writings in footnotes. This section does not aim to evaluate the correctness of Tillich’s opinions but to discuss how they influenced my understanding at the time when his ideas helped me correct my perspective and encouraged me to continue learning.

Firstly, Tillich’s concept of ultimate concern deeply resonated with me. I had always sought the root of everything but had never found a fully satisfying answer—not even in Buddhism, where Buddha refrained from revealing certain metaphysical truths. Tillich convinced me that regardless of backgrounds, we all have an ultimate concern that drives us to continuously learn and reexamine our understanding. Ultimate concern transcends religion or culture11.

Furthermore, Tillich discussed the inherent flaws of human-run organizations, including the church. He emphasized that such organizations inherently possess demonic traits. This idea was eye-opening for me, as it revealed that even a Christian theologian like Tillich did not blindly defend his religion. His perspective shattered many of my prejudices on religion, as someone raised in a Vietnamese communist family. Tillich also helped me see Buddhism and mindfulness as merely two among countless theories and methods humans have developed, whether or not they involve god(s). This understanding motivated me to embrace lifelong learning, rather than abandoning it as some Buddhists might12, viewing human knowledge as unreal or unnecessary.

While Tillich may not be the most reasonable thinker in the history of human thought, his ideas provided me with answers during my cognitive dilemma. The aha moments I experienced while reading his work were transcendent, correcting my prior understanding. Similar to other transcendent moments while reading, I felt overwhelmed, connected with the thinker, and as though I had reached higher truths beyond my physical self. I still experience emotional responses to reading, but transcendent reading moments have no longer occurred since STE313.

Even though in this research I can now logically explain how these moments challenged and corrected my epistemology, the transcendent experiences themselves lasted only seconds. I quickly returned to a normal state, did not understand what had just happened, but carried the comfort and clarity that remained. It seemed as though I had grasped a rare and profound truth, though only after the STE concluded could I reason through its insights.

4. Discussion

Maslow names the fourth psychology as transpersonal psychology, which deals with transcendent experiences and transcendent values. He strongly believes that a larger and more inclusive science is one that includes the data of transcendence (Maslow 1964, p. 44). Similarly, William James and Karl Jaspers both recognized the ultimate limitations of logic and discursive thought, which led them to pursue self-transcendent experiences. For James, mystical experiences represented “the greatest peace”, while Jaspers engaged in transcending meditation and daily self-reflection to seek egoic self-transcendence (Gordon 2024; James [1902] 2009). These giants in the Social Sciences and Humanities might want to encourage us to continue exploring and disseminating valuable insights of this special human experience type.

To my current knowledge, I find Maslow’s ideas and arguments on self-transcendence—particularly on self-transcendent experiences (STEs)—most compatible with my own experiences and reflections. Thus, Maslow’s work will be cited and discussed more frequently in this section.

Religion: Hindrance or Trigger? Maslow suggests that “religion and churches may become the major enemies of the religious experience and experiencer”. Many people lose or forget the core religious experience—such as naturalistic peaks, transcendent, or mystical experiences—due to the institutionalized, legalistic, and organizational aspects of religion (Maslow 1971, p. 322). I find his statement accurate in many cases, particularly when religious adherence is largely a matter of tradition.

It is also true in my observation that religious adherents often expect religious experiences to occur within religious settings, where catalysts such as rituals, ceremonies, and teachings are present. They may dress formally and prepare themselves for entering sacred spaces. Outside such settings, they might no longer challenge themselves with spiritual concerns. Some even delegate their spirituality to religious leaders, believing that their leaders will take care of these matters on their behalf.

On the other hand, religion can be a valuable source of inspiration for nonreligious people. As a nonreligious person, I am deeply impressed by the solidarity within religious communities and their strong faith. For a long time before my epistemic crisis, I had always admired some of my friends for their firm religious faith, which I did not have and understand. I saw their faith as a grace that provided them with enormous strength, particularly during their times of struggle. I also wished I could have such grace.

Being nonreligious, I solely relied on reason to analyze circumstances and sought other pleasant activities to cope in times of difficulties and vulnerabilities. I could not pray or consult a priest like my Catholic friends. However, such an open attitude toward religion and spirituality, I believe, enabled me to experience STEs14. Maslow suggests that “Any person whose character structure… forces him to try to be extremely or completely rational or “materialistic” or mechanistic tends to become a non-peaker”. Such individuals often regard peak and transcendent experiences as irrational or overwhelming and may resist them (Maslow 1971, pp. 22–23). It is thus obvious that while religion can hinder its adherents from having core religious experiences, including STEs, it also offers wisdom, sacred spaces, and community, which can inspire nonreligious individuals. For nonreligious people, being in certain religious contexts may provide opportunities for reflection on their own values and foster new spiritual insights, potentially triggering STEs.

Enhancing Interfaith Dialogue. STEs can also serve as a foundation for interfaith dialogue. As discussed above, the great values of religion may resonate with nonreligious individuals, paving the way for meaningful conversations between religious and nonreligious people. Maslow asserts that transcendent experiences reveal the commonalities among religions, suggesting that “all mystical or peak-experiences are the same in their essence and have always been the same” (Maslow 1971, p. 20). This perspective profoundly reflects my own understanding of religions after my STEs regarding both their differences and similarities. The shared essence of STEs across religious traditions, therefore, may help bridge these differences.

In another case, Trammel (2017) also suggests that “both Buddhist and Christian elements and skills can help their followers to attain transcendence state that allow them to discern the divine and obtain deeper truths” (Maslow 1964, 1969, 1971). While Buddhists seek detachment from non-truths to attain enlightenment, Christians pursue unity with a mysterious force, God. Despite differing goals, both faiths use mindfulness to achieve transcendent experiences that are spiritual in nature.

Empirically, participants in some studies have reported similar experiences. For instance, Garcia Romeu et al. shares an interviewee’s reflection on his/her STE that “… if there was a kind of a shared sense of the collective of all of that, what that might mean for the world” (Garcia-Romeu et al. 2015, p. 15). From my own experiences, I strongly believe STEs bring us closer to one another, offering a shared language that transcends cultural and religious boundaries. At a higher level of consciousness, we experience a shared phenomenon of self-transcendence, revealing the commonality of human nature and the ability to obtain profound moments of peace.

Bridging Science and Other Forms of Knowledge. The intersection of science and other forms of human knowledge is a vast topic that cannot be fully addressed in a single paper. My contribution is limited to providing personal insights based on first-person experiences. I believe in the existence of data that connect science and non-science, allowing shared dialogue on the nature of knowledge and offering complementary ways of understanding the world.

First, many experiencers report that they cannot fully articulate the feelings they have during STEs. Similarly, while I can describe my physical responses and eventual outcomes, I cannot precisely capture the essence of the self-transcendent moments. This limitation suggests that science might struggle to reach the core of human experiences as it solely relies on empirical evidence. Although this assumption is not new, it once again shows the necessity of considering other forms of knowledge.

Additionally, my STEs during my epistemic crisis helped me appreciate their value to my epistemology. As a child, I had unexplained experiences, such as seeing “black feet” in our bedroom or witnessing the presence of a deceased relative whom I had even never met. However, I quickly dismissed them as hallucinations or coincidences. Only after my STEs during adulthood did I begin to view such moments as valid ways of understanding the world.

Also, if I had never experienced STEs or attempted to comprehend them, I might have remained closed to non-scientific phenomena. I would have judged religious people as naïve or psychologically manipulated, as some of my communist relatives or government officials in Vietnam do (Nguyen 2021, p. 214). However, after my STEs, I have found it easier to empathize with religious individuals and understand their experiences, regardless of their faith traditions. Being open to non-scientific data is an attitude that cannot be forced or taught through language alone. Only through experiences like STEs can one accept the existence of a non-material dimension of reality. Consequently, though I do not follow an institutional religion, I have chosen spiritual values as my way of life—daily and ultimately.

Potential for Human Well-Being. In previous parts of this discussion, I have highlighted how STEs are useful to human beings in numerous aspects. In terms of their potential for human well-being, I will analyze the mechanism that enables us to reach calmness and peace throughout life, even though such mechanisms need further supporting evidence and arguments. It should be noted here that I cannot be certain about my physical and mental conditions for the rest of my life, but what I can be sure of is that the state of peace within me, though temporary, lasts much longer and is present much more frequently compared to how it used to be before my most influential STEs occurred.

Specifically, STEs help balance my physical and spiritual needs in both direct and indirect ways. In my impression, humans tend to frequently struggle with ultimate concerns and desires for something more. In any case of feeling “not enough”, STEs challenge us to fill the gap. As discussed earlier, we may experience numerous STEs in our lives, but only those occurring during times of difficulty make the most significant and lasting impact. Accordingly, if we are patient enough to observe and reflect on our STEs, they will provide guidance about what we lack to live a fulfilled life.

I will take my own case to illustrate the mechanism stated above. I had always sought peaceful moments since I was a child, possibly due to the noisy environment I was in. Such a desire led me to spend time at a Catholic church and a Buddhist temple almost every weekend in my neighborhood when I was an undergraduate student and had opportunity to visit these religious places. The wish to seek spiritual growth kept me in close interaction with my Buddhist friends, one of whom eventually became a monk named J., as mentioned. Eventually, as described, STE1 occurred and changed my perspective, causing an epistemic crisis. In turn, the doubt encouraged me to continue seeking answers to the questions that confused me. The combination of STE2 and STE3 then gradually gave me reasons to continue my studies and broaden my knowledge.

While I was satisfied with the answers Theravada mindfulness offered me about how my thoughts and emotions physically appeared and disappeared, my mind was not at ease as metaphysical questions remained challenging me. Such curiosity and wonder drove me to continue immersing myself in books and spiritual practices. I suppose this journey varies among individuals, depending on numerous objective and subjective factors. However, if one continues to seek answers to questions on physical and metaphysical matters, they will obtain STEs that help them explore hidden emotions and unconscious parts, as well as provide answers to the questions they have been asking. At this point, I feel like I truly understand the Bible verse: “Knock, and the door will be opened to you”. Whether religious or not, the desire to live fully will lead to a fulfilled life.

Nevertheless, it is worth noting that STEs themselves cannot automatically help the experiencer live fully. The lasting positive impact of STEs requires hard work. Although my STEs occurred in different contexts, all of them seem to follow a similar pattern. In the beginning stage of STEs, I felt emotional, touched, overwhelmed, and sometimes surprised or scared. After a couple of moments, I felt empty, light, relieved, and peaceful. However, these feelings of lightness, relief, and peace would not have lasted long—like my teenage STEs—if I had not maintained reflection, practice, and adherence to the positive values revealed through STEs, such as connection with unity, gratitude, love, and compassion.

At this point, Maslow seems to describe the shift between two types of states well: transient self-transcendent experiences and plateau experiences. He writes, “the plateau experience… is serene and calm, rather than poignantly emotional, climactic, autonomic response to the miraculous, the awesome,… plateau experiencing can be achieved, learned, earned by long hard work” (Maslow 1971, p. 336). To my experience, Maslow’s ideas perfectly match how I believe the mechanism described above can help maximize the potential of STEs in enhancing human well-being. Ultimately, I think that Maslow’s plateau experience, James’s “the greatest peace”, Buddhist enlightenment, Christian heaven, or other similar concepts refer to the same state of being at peace—a state we human beings spend our whole lives striving to reach.

5. Conclusions

This study’s phenomenological exploration of first-person STEs within Buddhist and Christian contexts, supported by comparative insights from people of diverse religious backgrounds, highlights the multifaceted nature of STEs. The findings underscore the dual role of religion in shaping STEs, acting as both a potential barrier for adherents and a catalyst for nonreligious individuals. Importantly, the universal aspect of STEs, which transcends individual belief systems, emerges as a powerful tool for fostering interfaith dialogue and promoting religious harmony. Moreover, STEs offer a promising avenue for bridging the gap between science and other forms of knowledge, providing a shared framework for understanding the complexities of human experience. Also, the proposed mechanism for STEs emphasizes the importance of achieving balance between physical and mental needs, thereby contributing to lifelong peace and enabling individuals to realize their fullest potential. Finally, this research invites further interdisciplinary inquiry into the transformative power of STEs, encouraging their integration into academic, spiritual, and practical pursuits for the betterment of individuals and society as a whole.