The Southern Celestial Star Deities and the Refining and Transcendence Doctrine of the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures

Abstract

In Daoist cosmology, the southern celestial star deities are represented by terms such as the Southern Dipper, the Southern Palace, the Southern Chang, and the South Pole, each with specific cosmological significance. These concepts are closely intertwined with the themes of longevity and fire-refining, yet they often blend together to such an extent that clear distinctions become difficult. Through an exploration of this series of concepts, this paper reveals that during the Six Dynasties, the ancient Lingbao scriptures inherited the mythological tradition of earlier religions, in which “fire” symbolized the alchemical refining process. These scriptures extol “fire” as a powerful force for purification and regeneration, and it is said that the Primordial Heavenly Lord once employed flames to refine the “true scriptures”, which represented the cosmic primordial essence. Such fiery transformation finds vivid expression in the legend of A-Qiuzeng. By bathing in sacred flames, this female ascetic underwent bodily transformation into a male form, exemplifying fire’s role as a catalyst for the transformation of existence. Crucially, the Lingbao scriptures utilized the Five Elements doctrine (with fire corresponding to the south) to synthesize the disparate cults of southern celestial star deities into a coherent system. This synthesis highlights the sacred religious function of the southern celestial star deities in “refining death and transcending life” through fire. Moreover, it distills their philosophical significance in mediating the transitions between life and death. Since their compilation during the Six Dynasties, this paradigm has continuously influenced the development of Daoist doctrines of refining and transcendence, as well as their corresponding ritual frameworks.

1. Introduction

Daoism is fundamentally a religion that engages with nature and the cosmos (Lagerwey 1987, p. ix). From around the fifth century onward, Daoism, especially as reflected in the ancient Lingbao scriptures 古靈寶經,1 integrated the theory of the Five Elements (wuxing 五行). This framework proposed that the northern celestial deities were connected to the yin 陰 force of water, governing death, while the southern celestial deities were associated with the yang 陽 force of fire, representing longevity. The veneration of the southern celestial deities and their fire-refining capabilities perfectly embodies Daoism’s reverence for natural forces and its philosophical reflection on the profound connection with the cosmos. Scholarly attention has focused on the Daoist doctrine of “refining and transcendence (liandu 煉度)” during medieval China. Additionally, its associated rituals in the Song and Yuan periods have also been studied.2 However, the intricate relationship between the southern celestial star deities3 and the theme of refining and transcendence has not received sufficient focus.

Within the Daoist religious framework, these southern celestial star deities and their associated titles—such as the Southern Dipper (nandou 南斗), the Southern Palace (nangong 南宮), the Southern Chang (nanchang 南昌), and the South Pole (nanji 南極)—are deeply intertwined with the central doctrines of “longevity” and “refining”, particularly fire-based refining. For instance, the Ming Daoist master Zhang Yuchu 張宇初 (1359–1410), in his Yuanshi wuliang duren shangpin miaojing tongyi 元始無量度人上品妙經通義, explains that Southern Ascent (nanshang 南上) serves as an alternate name for the Grotto-Sun Palace (dongyang gong 洞陽宮) and is also known as the Southern Chang Upper Palace (nanchang shanggong 南昌上宮) or the Vermilion Mountain Flame Palace (zhuling huofu 朱陵火府). This refers to the Southern Dipper’s Six True Lords, whose role is to guide and liberate souls. The true deities associated with the South Pole possess distinct functions, yet all share the power to revive the dead and offer salvation across generations (Daozang 道藏, vol. 2, p. 305).

Within the Daoist tradition, certain practitioners have sought to elucidate the intricate relationships among these notions. For instance, the Southern Song Daoist Jin Yunzhong 金允中 (?–?) clarifies a common misconception in his work Shangqing lingbao dafa 上清靈寶大法, namely, that the North and South Poles are the places where true water and true fire originate. He notes that the Northern Dipper (beidou 北斗) is the Central Dipper (zhongdou 中斗), while the Southern Dipper refers to the Dou mansion (douxiu 斗宿), located in the northeastern corner, and not to the South Pole. From the perspective of the entire celestial system, the North Pole resides at the very center of the heavens and is not the Kan 坎 position. Similarly, the South Pole is not directly in the south. The Kan position lies between 15 degrees of the Wei mansion (weixiu 危宿) and 10 degrees and 4 min of the Xu mansion (xuxiu 虛宿), while the Li 離 position spans from 16 degrees of the Zhang mansion (zhangxiu 張宿) to 7 degrees of the Xing mansion (xingxiu 星宿). These represent the true north–south orientations, corresponding to the positions of Kan and Li within the celestial order, where true water and true fire are generated. As for the Vermilion Mountain Flame Palace, it belongs to the celestial southern region but should not be equated with the South Pole (Daozang, vol. 31, p. 582). This detailed cosmological explanation reflects an effort within the Daoist tradition to disentangle misconceptions surrounding celestial phenomena and their associated metaphysical attributions. However, Jin’s reference to the more obscure knowledge of celestial studies seems to carry the risk of overcorrection.

Furthermore, the Southern Song loyalist Zheng Sixiao 鄭思肖 (1241–1318), in his Taiji jilian neifa 太極祭煉內法, offers an extended explanation. Zheng’s interpretation is rich in detail but somewhat ambiguous. For example, he identifies the deities of the South Pole with the internal deities of the human body below the Niwan Palace (niwan gong 泥丸宮), while simultaneously emphasizing the distinct positions of the South Pole, the Southern Dipper, and the Southern Chang Upper Palace—all of which he ultimately subsumes under the authority of the South Pole (Daozang, vol. 10, p. 460). Zheng’s discourse is deeply influenced by the Nandou jing 南斗經, the Song version of Duren jing 度人經, and internal alchemical thought. His approach tends to align the star deities of the southern heavens with the internal deities of the human body, yet his interpretations occasionally appear arbitrary or inconsistent.

It is evident that even renowned masters of Daoism throughout history have been at a loss as to how to approach this set of concepts. Previous scholars have predominantly focused on the commonalities of these concepts,4 yet they have paid relatively little attention to their origins, evolutionary trajectories, differences, and the gradual processes through which they became interwoven. The primary objective of this treatise is to trace the genesis and evolution of pertinent concepts through a meticulous re-examination of Daoist scriptures from the Han to the Jin periods, thereby elucidating their similarities and divergences. Building upon this foundation, the discourse shall delve into the manner in which the ancient Lingbao scriptures of the Six Dynasties period assimilated the veneration of southern celestial deities, with particular emphasis on their fire-refining functions. Finally, the exposition shall extend to the transformative trajectory of the southern celestial deities’ refining and transcendence doctrine from the Six Dynasties onward. This scholarly approach not only illuminates the historical interweaving of southern celestial deities worship and the ideology of refining and salvation thought from medieval to modern times but also provides profound insights into the religious doctrines and symbolic significance embedded therein.

2. The Southern Dipper, the Southern Palace, the Southern Chang, and the South Pole: An Exploration of Star Deity Beliefs in Daoism from the Han to the Jin Periods

2.1. The Southern Dipper

The Southern Dipper, also known as Dou mansion, is the first of the seven mansions of the northern Xuanwu 玄武 and forms part of the Scorpius constellation. Due to its six stars being arranged in a pattern resembling the Northern Dipper, the two constellations have often been referenced together since antiquity. However, why is Dou mansion referred to as the Southern Dipper?

The Southern Song scholar Ye Daqing 葉大慶(1180?–1230?), in his Kaogu zhiyi 考古質疑, suggests that the stars of the four quadrants rotate with the seasons. For instance, in spring, the seven mansions of the Xuanwu are positioned in the northern sky. At this time, Dou mansion aligns directly opposite the fifth star of the Northern Dipper, Yuheng 玉衡. Thus, as the Northern Dipper is named for its position, Dou mansion came to be known as the Southern Dipper, providing a clear distinction (Kaogu zhiyi, p. 207). From an astronomical perspective, the Southern Dipper is typically visible only during the summer and autumn seasons in the southern regions of China, where it appears in the southern night sky. This geographical limitation associates the Southern Dipper with specific locales and seasons, shaping its role in ancient Chinese astronomical observation and cultural symbolism.

The veneration of the Southern Dipper in ancient China has a longstanding history, its intimate connection with the Northern Dipper highlighting the centrality of stellar worship within the cosmological framework of early Chinese thought. Among the discoveries at the Shizitan 柿子灘 site in Ji County 吉縣, Shaanxi Province 陝西省, dating to the Mesolithic era, one particular red-painted rock art depiction is especially noteworthy: it features a frontal nude female figure with seven red dots arranged in an arc above her head and six additional red dots scattered around her legs. Some scholars posit that this artwork portrays a scene of an ancient shamaness conducting a celestial ritual to invoke blessings. The seven dots above are interpreted as representing the Northern Dipper, while the six below may symbolize the Southern Dipper (Feng 2010, p. 137). If this hypothesis holds, the symbolic association of the Southern and Northern Dippers with the domains of life and death could trace back to the spiritual consciousness of humankind over ten millennia ago.

In Shang society, the veneration of celestial phenomena was particularly prominent. The Southern and Northern Dippers were regarded as critical constellations governing the stability and security of the country (Zhang 1958, p. 58). The Shiji 史記 refers to the Southern Dipper as the “Heavenly Temple (tianmiao 天廟)”, highlighting its exalted status among the stars. Further, the Shiji records that during the Qin dynasty, a temple dedicated to the Southern Dipper was established in Yong 雍, attesting to its profound religious significance (Shiji, pp. 1310, 1375). By the Han dynasty, the worship of the Southern Dipper became further institutionalized. The Hanshu 漢書 records that Emperor Xuandi 漢宣帝 (91 BCE–48 BCE) erected a shrine dedicated to the Southern Dipper near Chang’an 長安 to venerate this constellation (Hanshu, p. 1250). The Jinshu 晉書 provides detailed descriptions of the six stars of the Southern Dipper, including their names and respective dominions, enriching the astronomical and religious connotations of this celestial veneration (Jinshu, p. 301).

During the Han and the Jin dynasties, the concept of the Southern and Northern Dippers each governing life and death held significant influence over intellectual thought and religious belief. The Hetu shengqia fu 河圖聖洽符, an important apocryphal text (Weishu 緯書), explicitly identifies the Southern Dipper as the “Heavenly Temple of the Son of Heaven”, with its primary role being the recording of the emperor’s lifespan (Weishu jicheng 緯書集成, p. 1203). This notion established the theoretical foundation for the Southern Dipper’s elevated status in the cosmology of stellar worship. In the Eastern Jin period, Gan Bao 干寶 (?–336), in his work Soushen ji 搜神記, further developed the symbolic meaning of the Southern and Northern Dippers, presenting them as complementary entities: the Southern Dipper presiding over life, and the Northern Dipper governing death (Soushen ji jijiao 搜神記輯校, p. 64). This dualistic view of cosmic governance not only reflects the integration of astronomy and religious belief but also embodies a profound metaphysical understanding of life and death as cosmological forces.

Daoism appears to have embraced and expanded this concept, incorporating the roles of the Southern and Northern Dippers into its theological framework to create a more systematic cosmological interpretation. The Eastern Jin Daoist classic Nüqing guilü 女青鬼律 clearly states, “The Northern Dipper governs death, while the Southern Dipper inscribes life 北斗主煞，南斗注生” (Daozang, vol. 18, p. 242). This concise statement delineates the celestial division of responsibilities, with the Northern Dipper overseeing the register of death and the Southern Dipper recording the annals of life. Such theological clarification further cemented the central position of the Southern and Northern Dippers in Daoist religious thought. The belief in the Southern and Northern Dippers as the rulers of life and death permeates the literary and religious texts of the Han and the Jin periods. This concept not only reveals the historical intersection of astronomy and religion but also illuminates ancient Chinese reflections on cosmic order and the existential meaning of life.

2.2. The Southern Palace

The veneration of the Southern Palace in Daoism likely originates from the Shangqing 上清 tradition. In the Zhen’gao 真誥, the term “Southern Palace” is associated with two primary meanings. The first refers to the Qingliang Terrace 清涼臺 within the Southern Palace. The Zhen’gao records, “The Emperor Xiaoming 漢明帝 (28–75) dreamt of a divine being... and subsequently commissioned the creation of Buddhist images and a depiction of Hariti at the Qingliang Terrace of the Southern Palace 漢孝明皇帝夢見神人……又於南宮清涼臺作佛形像及鬼子母圖” (Zhen’gao, pp. 159–60). Here, the Southern Palace is identified as a Han dynasty imperial compound (S. Chen 2018), while the Qingliang Terrace is reputed to be the site of China’s earliest creation of Buddhist images, endowing it with profound historical and religious significance.

The second meaning of the Southern Palace refers to a spiritual site with the function of refining and transforming. The Zhen’gao recounts that Zhou Yuanzhi 周爰支(?–?) attained immortality by undergoing transformation within the Southern Palace (Zhen’gao, p. 218). This concept of the Southern Palace as a space associated with longevity and the refining of the souls of the deceased, became a pivotal element in Daoist soteriology. It maintained its prominence in the themes of refining and transcendence within Daoism during the Jin, the Tang, and even the Song–Yuan periods. Through these dual connotations, the veneration of the Southern Palace embodies a unique cultural symbolism in the Daoist cosmological framework and practices of spiritual cultivation. It bridges historical tradition with the Daoist pursuit of the soul’s elevation and eternal life, serving as both a historical locus and a metaphysical ideal within the Daoist religious imagination.

The “Southern Palace” is often associated with “Vermilion Mountain (zhuling 朱陵)”, underscoring the profound connection between Daoist geography and the Five Elements cosmology. For instance, the Zhen’gao records that a figure named Xuanzi 玄子(?–?) claimed to have recently achieved immortality in the Southern Palace, with his name recorded in the celestial register of immortality at Vermilion Mountain (Zhen’gao, p. 287). The term “Vermilion Mountain” is intrinsically linked to the Five Elements cosmology, where “Vermilion” symbolizes the south and the fire element. As a result, Shangqing scriptures describe Vermilion Mountain as “the land of extreme blazing fire (jiyan liuhuo zhixiang 極炎流火之鄉)”.

Furthermore, Vermilion Mountain is intimately connected with the Southern Marchmount (nanyue 南嶽), Mount Heng 衡山, which has long been regarded as “the Grotto-Heaven of Vermilion Mountain (zhuling dongtian 朱陵洞天)” (Yunji qiqian 雲笈七籤, p. 612). As early as the Han and the Wei periods, the belief in the Southern Marchmount’s power to deliver individuals from calamities had already taken shape. The Laozi bianhua jing 老子變化經 declares, “Seek the Southern Marchmount, and one can transcend disasters 南嶽相求，可以度厄” (Zhonghua daozang 中華道藏, vol. 8, p. 182). This idea imbues the Southern Marchmount with the function of guiding practitioners through the difficulties of their journey, linking it closely to Vermilion Mountain and the Southern Palace. This system not only embodies symbolic connections between geography, cosmology, and the Five Elements but also reflects the lofty Daoist imagination and religious aspirations tied to the southern grotto-heavens.

Before the Han and the Jin dynasties, the textual records regarding the Southern Marchmount were fraught with ambiguity, with references alternately identifying it as Mount Heng or Mount Huo 霍山 (Wei 2019, p. 348). However, within the Shangqing corpus, the “Southern Marchmount” unequivocally refers to Mount Huo. Tao Hongjing 陶弘景 (456–536), in his annotations to the Zhen’gao, writes, “Mount Huo is a crimson citadel and also serves as the bureau of life, where only the Great Yuan Immortal and the Lady of the Southern Marchmount reside 霍山赤城，亦爲司命之府，唯太元真人、南嶽夫人在焉” (Zhen’gao, p. 161). Within the Shangqing tradition, the Lady Wei of the Southern Marchmount (nanyue weifuren 南嶽魏夫人) holds an eminent position, and Mount Huo, as her domain, was exalted as “Vermilion Mountain” and the “Bureau of Life”. Over time, however, as the prominence of Mount Heng gradually rose, many myths originally associated with Mount Huo were likely transferred to Mount Heng. From the Tang and Song dynasties onward, texts frequently paired “Vermilion Mountain” with Mount Heng, a clear reflection of this historical transformation.

Thus, the “Southern Palace” originally symbolized the veneration of the Southern Marchmount in early Shangqing traditions. It referred to a celestial palace and the bureau of life linked to Vermilion Mountain and Mount Huo. By the late Jin and Southern dynasties, however, the Lingbao tradition began merging this simpler “Southern Palace” worship with broader concepts like the “South Pole” and “Southern Dipper”. This expanded its meaning into a more complex, systematic framework. The details of this evolution and its cultural significance will be examined in the following sections.

2.3. The Southern Chang

The name of the deity “Lord of Southern Chang (nanchang jun 南昌君)” first appears in the early text Zhengyi fawen jing zhangguan pin 正一法文經章官品, which is associated with the Celestial Masters (tianshi dao 天師道) tradition. The scripture states, “The Lord of Southern Chang commands 120 subordinate officers… removing names from the registers of death and reassigning them to the registers of life, eliminating the three worms within the body, thereby enabling the attainment of immortality. Even an eighty-year-old elder may be rejuvenated to the state of a fifteen-year-old youth 南昌君官將一百二十人……脫下死籍，還著本命，消滅三蟲，伏長生不老，八十歲更爲十五童” (Daozang, vol. 28, p. 538). This passage explicitly highlights the Lord of Southern Chang’s primary role in prolonging life, a function closely aligned with the nature of other southern celestial star deities.

The concept of the “Southern Chang Upper Palace” is also commonly mentioned in early Lingbao scriptures. For instance, the ancient version of Duren jing states, “The heavenly chancellors assemble at the Southern Chang Upper Palace... The Great Deity of Life supervises these affairs, wielding talismans and registers, overseeing the verification of life and death records 諸天丞相，南昌上宮……監生大神，執籙把籍” (Daozang, vol. 1, p. 3). This description illustrates the sacred functions of star deities convening in the Southern Chang Upper Palace to review and regulate the registers of life and death, solidifying its role as the central site for overseeing the cycles of life and the management of the registers of fate.

However, the precise meaning of the term “Southern Chang” is difficult to determine definitively, but it can be inferred as a composite reference to the “Southern Dipper” and “Wenchang 文昌”. The Southern Dipper refers to the Dou mansion, as previously discussed, while Wenchang denotes the six stars of Wenchang. The Shiji records, “Above the Kui 魁 portion of the Northern Dipper, there are six stars known as the Palace of Wenchang. The first is the Upper General, the second is the Next General, the third is the Noble Chancellor, the fourth is the Master of Life, the fifth is the Administrator of the Center, and the sixth is the Minister of Fortune 斗魁戴匡六星曰文昌宮：一曰上將，二曰次將，三曰貴相，四曰司命，五曰司中，六曰司祿” (Shiji, p. 1293). This indicates that the Wenchang stars are closely linked to divine mandates and human affairs, holding significant astrological importance.

By the late Tang and the Five Dynasties periods, Du Guangting 杜光庭 (850–933) had already paired the Southern Dipper with Wenchang in his Guangcheng ji 廣成集: “The Southern Dipper and Wenchang jointly preside over the celestial registers, serving as the origin of the vital force of yang and the office responsible for imperial longevity 南斗文昌，實掌主籙，爲正陽煦物之本，乃帝王壽命之司” (Guangcheng ji, p. 161). This linkage further underscores the functional roles of the Southern Dipper and Wenchang within Daoist rituals. Elsewhere in the Guangcheng ji, Wenchang is often described as subordinate to the Southern Dipper or the South Pole, represented as a celestial palace or bureau (Guangcheng ji, pp. 101, 174, 207). Du Guangting, being well versed in astronomy and astrology, clearly grounded these assertions in established traditions.

Interestingly, by the Song dynasty, Wenchang became directly associated with the fifth star of the Southern Dipper. The Nandou jing 南斗經 refers to it as “the Fifth Heavenly Pivot Star of the Southern Dipper, Wenchang, Lord of Deliverance and Refiner of Souls 南斗第五天樞度厄文昌煉魂真君” (Daozang, vol. 11, p. 352). During the Yuan dynasty, Wei Qi 衛琪 (?–?) even identified the Wenchang Emperor 文昌帝君 as the “Yang Official of the Southern Dipper (nandou yangguan 南斗陽官)”, emphasizing the unification of Wenchang and Southern Chang as a single astral deity (Daozang, vol. 2, p. 637). Over time, the relationship between the Southern Dipper and Wenchang evolved from parallel entities to a more integrated concept. Their celestial functions and religious significance became increasingly interwoven.

Why, then, did Wenchang become integrated with the Southern Dipper? This phenomenon can be traced back to the Southern Palace worship in Six Dynasties Daoism, the celestial palace nature of the Wenchang stars, and the unifying and creative efforts of the Lingbao scriptures in adapting Daoist traditions. As previously discussed, Southern Palace worship originated from the Shangqing tradition. The Six Stars of Wenchang, due to their crescent-shaped arrangement, have long been regarded as a symbol of the celestial palace. As stated in the Kaiyuan zhanjing 開元占經, “The Six Stars of Wenchang represent the palaces of the six courts. Located in front of the Kui portion of the Northern Dipper, they govern the universe and represent the Palace of Literary Virtue 文昌六星，六府之宮也，在斗魁前，經緯天下，文德之宮” (Kaiyuan zhanjing, p. 651). The Wenchang Palace is further endowed with the power to govern fate, as noted in the Shiji, where the fourth star of Wenchang is designated as the “Master of Life”.

In certain Daoist scriptures from the Northern Dynasties, the veneration of the Wenchang stars maintained a relatively original form and independent status. For instance, the Northern Wei text Laojun yinsong jiejing 老君音誦誡經 identifies the Wenchang stars as the locus of authority over the registers of clans and peoples (Daozang, vol. 18, p. 211). In contrast, Southern Daoism consistently revered the “Southern Palace” as a celestial palace and bureau of life, whose nature and functions closely mirrored those of the Wenchang Palace. Building on this, the Lingbao scriptures, which emphasized the “south” and “fire”, expanded the relatively simple Southern Palace worship of the Shangqing school. They linked the Wenchang stars with southern celestial deities, creating the concept of “Southern Chang”. Through this synthesis, Wenchang evolved from a stellar official within the Ziwei Enclosure 紫微垣 into a celestial palace in the southern heavens, gaining new religious significance. Over time, its original identity as the Wenchang stars gradually faded.

2.4. The South Pole

The term “South Pole” in the context of ancient Chinese astronomy typically referred to two distinct concepts. The first is the Elder Star of the South Pole (Canopus, nanji laoren xing 南極老人星), commonly known as the Star of Longevity (shouxing 壽星). This star was closely associated with the blessings of longevity and prosperity, as evidenced by the existence of a shrine dedicated to it in Yong during the Qin dynasty, which serves as a testament to its lofty status (Shiji, p. 1376). The second is the celestial South Pole (nantian ji 南天極), the point where the Earth’s southern axis intersects with the celestial sphere. During the Eastern Han dynasty, Zhang Heng 張衡 (78–139), through observation and theoretical deduction, explicitly identified the existence of the celestial South Pole (Jinshu, p. 284). This discovery marked a significant breakthrough in ancient Chinese astronomy’s understanding of cosmic spatial structures.

From the perspective of the adoption of the “South Pole” belief in Daoism during the Han and the Jin dynasties, the term “South Pole” appears relatively early in Daoist classics such as the Laozi zhongjing 老子中經, the Sanhuang jing 三皇經, the Baopu zi neipian 抱朴子內篇, and the Lingbao wufu xu 靈寶五符序. It is also referred to as the “South Pole Great One (nanji taiyi 南極太一)”. The Laozi zhongjing already depicts the South Pole as the place where human souls ascend to the heavens, with star deities examining and verifying records there (Daozang, vol. 27, p. 155). Furthermore, the Dongshen badi miaojing jing 洞神八帝妙精經, quoting the Sanhuang sanyi jing 三皇三一經, states,

The Upper Yuan Deity above the head is named Fu Xian. It is the Lord of Great One… This deity is called the South Pole Elder and dwells in the Great One Palace.

The Middle Yuan Deity in the heart is named Xuan Jian. It is the Lord of the Middle Great One and dwells in the spleen.

The Lower Yuan Deity beneath the navel is named Xuan Miao. It is the Mother of the Dao, nurturing profound mysteries within the North Pole.

頭上上元神，字符先,太一君也。……此神之號南極老人，下在太一宮中。

心中中元神，字玄堅，太一中極君也，在脾中。

臍下下元神，字玄妙，北極谷玄道母也。

(Daozang, vol. 11, p. 386)

The “South Pole Elder” in the Sanhuang sanyi jing represents a divinity constructed on the foundation of the Elder Star worship, integrated with the concepts of “Three Great Ones (san taiyi 三太一)” and the “Three Elixir Fields (san dantian 三丹田)”. This deity embodies the attributes of both a star god and a corporeal god, reflecting a profound religious imagination. Its conceptual logic relies on the correspondence between the “North Pole–Great One” and the lower elixir field of the human body. Since humans possess three elixir fields, this idea was further elaborated into the “Middle Pole–Great One” to represent the middle elixir field and the “South Pole–Great One” to symbolize the upper elixir field. This creative religious construct not only integrates stellar worship with internal cultivation systems but also reflects the complex interplay of cosmology and physiology in Daoism during the Han and the Jin dynasties. It demonstrates the systematic development and imaginative expansion of Daoist divine hierarchies during this period.

In the early Shangqing tradition, the South Pole was also venerated, and it was likely referred to as the “Elder Star of the South Pole”. According to the account in Zhen’gao, the Elder Star manifests in celestial phenomena as the “Elder of the South Pole (nanji laoren 南極老人)”, is referred to in the Great Void as the “Immortal of the Great Void (taixu zhenren 太虛真人)”, and appears in the Southern Marchmount as Chisong zi 赤松子 (Zhen’gao, p. 262). Additionally, there is a divine figure known as the “Lady of the South Pole (nanji furen 南極夫人)”. She was the fourth daughter of the Queen Mother of the West (xi wangmu 西王母), named Hualin 華林 (Daozang, vol. 6, p. 785). In the Shangqing scriptures, she primarily played the role of transmitting sacred texts and teachings. Another divine office was that of the “Commander of Longevity and Life in the South Pole (nanji changsheng simingjun 南極長生司命君)” (Yunji qiqian, p. 2211). This deity held a prominent position as the Supreme Recorder of the Shangqing pantheon.

In the ancient Lingbao scriptures, numerous deities bear the name “South Pole”, such as the “Supreme Lord of the South Pole (nanji huangshang laojun 南極皇上老君)”, the “Laozi of the South Pole (nanji laozi 南極老子)”, the “Sovereign of Salvation in the South Pole (nanji dushi jun 南極度世君)”, the “Red Spirit Immortal of the South Pole (danling nanji zhenren 丹靈南極真人)”, the “Primordial Sovereign of the South Pole (nanji yuanzhen jun 南極元真君)”, and the “Venerable Elder of the South Pole (nanji zhangren 南極丈人)”. However, these deities are not directly associated with the Elder Star of the South Pole but rather signify their roles as celestial beings of the southern heavens. Thus, it is evident that the “South Pole” does not represent a singular divine entity but rather a multifaceted pantheon of spiritual figures.

More detailed accounts of the “Venerated God of the South Pole (nanji zunshen 南極尊神)” are found in the Taishang dongxuan lingbao chishu yujue miaojing 太上洞玄靈寶赤書玉訣妙經 and the Taishang dongxuan lingbao zhenwen duren benxing miaojing 太上洞玄靈寶真文度人本行妙經. According to these texts, the Venerated God of the South Pole bore the surname Huang 皇 and the given name Duming 度明. Originally, Duming was the daughter of the king of Yuan 宛 in Jambudvīpa (yanfu li guo 閻浮黎國). Despite being born into wealth and privilege, she was uninterested in worldly pleasures and devoted herself to pursuing the Dao. Her sincerity moved the Celestial Emperor, who transformed her mortal form into that of a man after a great cosmic catastrophe. Subsequently, the Red Emperor (chidi 赤帝) bestowed upon Duming the title “Supreme Immortal of the South Pole (nanji shangzhen 南極上真)” at the Grotto-Sun Palace in the southern realm (Yunji qiqian, pp. 2216–17).

From this perspective, the concept of the “South Pole” in the ancient Lingbao scriptures can be understood as an extension of the early Daoist veneration of southern celestial star deities. It also draws upon the Buddhist geographical notion of Jambudvīpa as one of the four great continents, constructing an idealized southern celestial realm. This system blends astral worship with Daoist and Buddhist cultural imagery, reflecting the complexity and syncretism of early Daoist beliefs.

3. Longevity and Fire-Refining: The Southern Celestial Star Deities and Their Refining Functions in the Ancient Lingbao Scriptures

In the construction of the ancient Chinese directional symbolism system, the south, with its unique natural attributes and cultural connotations, developed a multi-layered symbolic significance. As the direction facing the sun, the south has been imbued since antiquity with the primal imagery of light and vitality. The Baihu tong 白虎通 elevates “the south” from a mere geographical direction to a philosophical symbol of life force: “The south governs growth and nourishment… It is the direction of nurturing and fostering, where all things are cradled and brought to fruition 南方主長養……南方者，任養之方，萬物懷任也” (Baihu tong shzuheng 白虎通疏證, pp. 171–73). This perception was transformed in the political realm. The Shuogua zhuan 說卦傳 establishes the governance paradigm of “the sage faces south to govern the world 聖人南面而聽天下” through the correspondence of the Li hexagram with the south and light, making the south a spatial symbol of the legitimacy of royal power (Zhouyi yizhu 周易譯註, p. 550). The earliest Daoist classic, Taiping Jing 太平經, further connects the south with the sun, the monarch, and summer, reinforcing its philosophical foundation as a symbol of power (Taiping jing hejiao 太平經合校, p. 236).

Han dynasty burial remains empirically substantiate religious practices linked to the symbolic system of the south. The vermilion inscriptions on pottery from the Han tomb in Nanliwang Village 南李王村, Xi’an 西安, interpreted by scholars as collective names for the Southern Dipper and South Pole star deities, reflect the devotional customs of the time, where people worshipped a host of southern stars to pray for blessings and longevity (Y. Wang 1996, p. 62). This phenomenon, combining astronomical constellations, directional worship, and the quest for immortality, marks a significant transformation in the southern symbolic system during the Han and Jin periods: its connotation expanded from a singular political metaphor to a complex system integrating life philosophy and ritualistic beliefs.

The development of the Five Elements theory provided more systematic philosophical support for southern symbolism. In the cosmic frameworks of classics like Guanzi 管子 and Huainan zi 淮南子, the south is closely linked with fire, and forms correspondences with the Yan Emperor 炎帝, summer, the sun, the planet Yinghuo (Mars 熒惑), the Zhuque 朱雀 constellation, and the color red. The mechanism of yang energy rising to form fire not only explains the material essence of the sun but also metaphorically represents the flourishing state of life force (Guanzi jiaozhu, p. 846; Huainan honglie jijie, pp. 80, 89). The poetic expression in Baihu tong, “Fire resides in the south, where yang ascends, and all things flourish 火在南方，南方者，陽在上，萬物垂枝”, perfectly encapsulates the core role of fire and the south: promoting growth and maintaining ecological harmony (Baihu tong shuzheng, p. 167).

In contrast to early Daoist emphasis on water-oriented philosophy (Allan 1997), the ancient Lingbao scriptures manifested a more substantial assimilation of the Five Elements theory (Bokenkamp 1983, pp. 451–57), with a greater focus on fire and the south. Within the soteriological doctrines of “refining and transcendence (liandu 煉度)” in ancient Lingbao scriptures, “fire-refining” led by the southern celestial star deities asserts doctrinal primacy, symbolizing creation and rebirth, while “water-refining” led by the northern celestial star deities remains subsidiary, symbolizing termination and death. Etymologically, the Chinese logograph lian 煉/鍊 stems from pyrometallurgical processes—a lexical archetype cementing fire’s axial symbolism in its salvific schema. Yang Rubin 楊儒賓, invoking kratophany (manifestation of power), decodes fire’s dual numinosity: both an annihilating force purging cosmic inertia and an ontological catalyst for rebirth. Unlike other sacred elements, fire’s theophany is fundamentally defined by its potent power, which is the essence of its sanctity. Herein, the “metallurgical paradigm” transcends metaphor to echo cosmogonic principles. Smelting as soteriology emerges as techno-spiritual praxis: artisans transform ores into sacred vessels through alchemy and discipline. For archaic consciousness, the molten transformation of ore into ritual bronze symbolized chaos refined into cosmic order—a theophanic act, not just craftsmanship. This sacred intensity forever elevated metallurgy as fire’s redemptive crucible (Yang 2020, pp. 389–90).

Within the ancient Lingbao scriptural system grounded in Five Elements theory, the triadic concept of “south–fire–red” carries profound theological significance. This doctrinal construct emerges through intricate interplay with the metaphysical mythos of fire’s smelting power in cosmogony. As recorded in Yuanshi wulao chishu yupian zhenwen tianshu jing 元始五老赤書玉篇真文天書經, the Primordial Heavenly Lord (Yuanshi tianzun 元始天尊) refined the Five Chapters of True Scriptures (Wupian zhenwen 五篇真文)—cosmic codes embodying universal origins—within the fire-symbolic spaces of the Grotto-Sun Hall (dongyang zhiguan 洞陽之館) and Flowing-Fire Courtyard (liuhuo zhiting 流火之庭). The scripture highlights how these southern fire-aligned places made the texts “radiate luminous purity 瑩發光芒” amidst red-hued sacred energy, earning them the name “Red Book (chishu 赤書)” (Daozang, vol. 1, p. 774).

The Taishang dongxuan lingbao zhutian lingshu duming miaojing 太上洞玄靈寶諸天靈書度命妙經 traces these sacred spaces to the Red Bright Nation Land (chiming guotu 赤明國土) within the Southern Chanli World (nanji chanli shijie 南極禪黎世界). When the Lingbao texts first manifested in the mortal realm, their divine sigils remained undifferentiated. Through collaborative cosmic smelting by the Primordial Heavenly Lord and Jade Emperor, fire reshaped these texts into luminous revelations that “brilliantly illuminated all directions 文彩煥曜，洞映五方”. This act not only rooted the land’s name (chiming, denoting “fire-virtue illumination”) but also made the Grotto-Sun Hall and Flowing-Fire Courtyard embodiments of fire-essence (Daozang, vol. 1, p. 801).

Thus, fire in Lingbao theology manifests dual nature: as a tangible smelting medium and as a transformative energy enabling cosmic renewal. This soteriological paradigm—where fire-refining transmutes mortal existence—finds narrative embodiment in the legend of A-Qiuzeng 阿丘曾. Through sacred fire-refining, ordinary beings transcend physical limitations, achieving ontological ascension from worldly to divine realms.

The Taishang dongxuan lingbao chishu yujue miaojing, a companion text to the Yuanshi wulao chishu yupian zhenwen tianshu jing, documents the mystical spiritual journey of the maiden A-Qiuzeng at sixteen. While bathing in fragrant waters, she witnessed a golden light piercing her chamber. Guided by this radiance, she climbed a wall and gazed southward, beholding an immortal whose brilliance rivaled the rising sun. A-Qiuzeng prostrated herself in reverence, pledging to transform her female form into a male body and transcend worldly cycles through Daoist teachings. The Five Demon Monarchs, fearing her defiance of cosmic order, disguised themselves as elders to dissuade her. Yet she declared her destiny lay with the “Ten Directions of Heaven”, unwavering in her resolve. Realizing her spiritual incompleteness, A-Qiuzeng gathered firewood and immolated herself. Amid flames, she prayed to the celestial lords, her body dissolving as if treading emptiness. Upon the fire’s extinguishing, her female form transformed into a male body. She stood before the Primordial Heavenly Lord, who commanded the Venerated God of the South Pole to guide her into the Dao (Daozang, vol. 6, pp. 194–95). This narrative intertwines key Daoist themes: sacrificial enlightenment, gender transcendence, and cosmic destiny. The ritualistic self-immolation, symbolizing “corporeal liberation (xingjie 形解)”, epitomizes the Daoist pursuit of refining both form and spirit to shatter mortal constraints. It embodies doctrinal profundity and ritual praxis.

Stephen Bokenkamp has verified that the tale of A-Qiuzeng originates from the story of the Longshi maiden 龍施女 in the Chinese-translated Buddhist sutra, The Scripture of the Longshi Maiden 龍施女經. In this sutra, the Longshi maiden attains Buddhahood (Bokenkamp 1983, pp. 474–75). Notably, the Longshi maiden’s path to enlightenment required her to “cast herself from a tower”, whereas A-Qiuzeng chose to “offer herself to the flames”, undergoing transformation through fire, which led her to transcend her female form and ultimately achieve the Dao. Liu Yi 劉屹 further notes that A-Qiuzeng’s original intent was to cultivate sufficient merit through strict observance of precepts, diligent study, and numerous cycles of reincarnation, eventually ascending as an immortal. However, she resolutely chose to cast herself into the fire, hoping to harness the flame’s force to ascend directly to the Dao Lord. Such a decision undeniably required great courage, embodying a rigorous trial of her spirit (Y. Liu 2018a, p. 15).

A-Qiuzeng’s self-immolation symbolizes her fearless resolve and mirrors the Lingbao scriptures’ reverence for the divine power of fire. Setting aside gender issues, “fire” as a transformative force capable of reshaping both matter and life lends additional reason to A-Qiuzeng’s transformation from female to male, presenting a narrative even more compelling than that of the Longshi maiden. Simultaneously, A-Qiuzeng’s story reveals the Lingbao scriptures’ reverence for the “south”. The Primordial Heavenly Lord specially appointed the Venerated God of the South Pole as her master. This god was originally a female being of the southern realm. Through kalpic cycles, he underwent cosmic transformation, manifested in male form, and attained his South Pole rank. There, in the Grotto-Sun Hall, he studied under the Red Emperor and mastered the “Red Book”. It is noteworthy that A-Qiuzeng and the Venerated God of the South Pole share a profound karmic bond, having cultivated the Dao together in a past life beneath the cypress groves near the Grotto-Sun Hall, thus forging a connection of predestined affinity (Daozang, vol. 6, p. 195). Thus, the story of A-Qiuzeng not only highlights her resolute pursuit of the Dao but also deeply reflects the Lingbao scriptures’ devotion to the enduring tradition of “south” and “fire” worship.5

Rooted primarily in the doctrine of “fire-refined true scriptures” and the legendary tale of A-Qiuzeng, the concept of sacred fire-refining in the ancient Lingbao scriptures is particularly noteworthy. From these origins, the Lingbao scriptures cultivate a belief in the mystical function of fire in “refining death and transcending life”. This process of “transcending life” involves the refining of human impurities through fire, allowing practitioners to achieve longevity and freedom from decay. An illustrative example of this belief can be found in the Taishang dongxuan lingbao zhutian lingshu duming miaojing, where the ritual of body refining through the “fire pool” is described. According to the text, this sacred land contains the Grotto-Sun Hall and the fire pool. The inhabitants of this realm visit the fire pool thrice yearly, purifying themselves with the essence of fire to obtain an incorruptible physique. Above the fire pool, a god residing in the Southern Palace presides, who oversees life and death records for the nation’s people. Consequently, the land remains untouched by the cries of mourning, as its people are spared from premature death.

This account further reflects the divine landscape of the Southern Chanli World, where deities protect the land and ensure the inhabitants’ long life. The aforementioned account pertains to the inhabitants of the “Red Bright Nation Land” within the mythos of the Lingbao scriptures. As for practitioners in our world, they must undergo the purifying fire to cleanse their impurities before ascending to immortality. As Xue Youqi 薛幽棲 (?–?) observed, “All those who attain the Dao in the physical body must undergo purification by fire to cleanse the impurities of body and mind. Initially, they must enter the Southern Palace, and only then may they ascend to their rightful place. This is the noble path to transcendence and immortality 生身得道，則火煉垢穢。初故皆入南宮，然後登其本位，此上士之格也” (Daozang, vol. 2, p. 196).

The term “refining death” refers to purifying the ghostly essence of deceased souls through fire, allowing them to be transformed and regain life. In the Duren jing, this sacred process is described: if one recites the scripture ten times, star deities gather, and the ancestors and suffering souls of the underworld are delivered, ascending to the Southern Palace. After nine years of transformation, they are reborn as noble beings. The original text further illustrates this process with the phrases, “Subduing malevolent spirits and offering divine protection, they are guided to the Southern Palace, where the souls of the deceased undergo purification by fire, transforming into immortals. Meanwhile, living practitioners who receive salvation are granted enduring existence, surviving through cycles of calamity 制魔保舉，度品南宮，死魂受煉，仙化成人，生身受度，劫劫長存” (Daozang, vol. 2, p. 212). In his commentary, Xue Youqi clarifies that for souls and spirits to become immortal, they must first have their ghostly essence purified by fire. He notes that, when deceased souls are saved in the Southern Palace, they are refined by blazing flames, which purges their ghostly attributes, allowing them to be transformed and attain immortality. Those who follow the path of the Dao in bodily form and receive salvation are granted lasting existence through successive ages. In the ancient Lingbao scriptures, the concept of “refining death and transcending life” represents a profound contemplation on the ultimate destination of life. It enables us to recognize that the end of life is not a terminus but rather a process of transformation and sublimation. Just like the myth of A-Qiuzeng’s rebirth through fire refining, it endows death with new meaning and hope.

In the theological framework of the Lingbao scriptures, the southern celestial deities hold dual roles: governing the continuity of life and presiding over the transformation of souls. This power stems from their association with the fiery virtue of the south—a symbol of both life’s vitality and the purging of death’s impurities. The Duren Jing illustrates this through the “Southern Dipper’s life-prolonging mechanism 南斗上生” and the “soul’s refining in Vermilion Mountain’s flames 魂度朱陵”, depicting how departed spirits are reborn through southern fire. Crucially, ritual recitations are said to elevate ancestral souls to the sacred Southern Palace, affirming these deities’ pivotal role in transcending life and death. Examples include the “Lord of Longevity in the South Pole (nanji changsheng zhijun 南極長生之君)”, the “Southern Officers of Fate and Records (nanshang siming silu 南上司命司錄)”, and the “Official Han (hansi 韓司)” who is overseeing mortal registers (Daozang, vol. 1, pp. 2–5). This fusion of southern astral deities with life–death transitions reflects the Lingbao tradition’s innovative reimagining of ancient southern star cults, culminating in a distinct “fire-refining salvation” system.

The Taishang dongxuan lingbao zhutian neiyin ziran yuzi 太上洞玄靈寶諸天內音自然玉字 further establishes the south as a sacred realm for rewriting destiny through its “North Emperor–South Pole” dual authority. The phrase “North Emperor erases death registers; Southern Palace inscribes life records 北帝削死錄，南宮上生簿” metaphorizes cosmic bureaucracy: while the North Emperor system finalizes underworld judgments, southern deities override these edicts (Daozang, vol. 2, p. 538). Here, the south transcends mere direction, becoming a ritual space where fire burns death registers and life books rebuild immortal ranks.

The Taishang dongxuan lingbao miedu wulian shengshi miaojing 太上洞玄靈寶滅度五煉生尸妙經 advances this cosmology by spatializing refining rites. Each section of its celestial texts of the five directions concludes with “ascending to the Southern Palace 遷上南宮”, emphasizing that souls must undergo southern fiery trials for ultimate transformation (Daozang, vol. 6, pp. 261–64). By anchoring abstract concepts like “refining death to transcend life” within celestial geography, this text renders salvation both cosmologically coherent and ritually actionable.

The Lingbao scriptures elevate fire and the south into transcendent metaphors of life and death. Fire serves both as a cosmic crucible that purifies the dross of flesh and spirit, and as a flame of rebirth reconstructing life’s order in the realm of Red Bright Nation Land. Through celestial patterns like the Southern Dipper, sacred geography such as the Southern Palace, and the elemental force of fire, the south emerges as an axis of ritual purification—a source of vitality and a destination for mortal dissolution. The legend of A-Qiuzeng’s self-immolation reveals fire’s dual power as destroyer and creator: earthly distinctions dissolve in its blaze, leaving only primal cosmic essence. This system constitutes a sacred alchemy—metallurgical processes morph into soteriological paradigms. Daoism here synthesizes natural elements (fire), political symbolism (southern supremacy), and Buddhist rebirth concepts, perpetuating Han-era astral veneration while reinventing death rituals through notions like “soul-refining in the Southern Palace”.

Within this framework, salvation becomes an alchemical reversal of cosmic genesis. Through fire-refining, individuals return to primordial purity preceding creation. The Lingbao tradition’s veneration of southern celestial deities marks medieval Daoism’s shift from philosophical contemplation to ritual mastery. Replacing water’s gentle flow with fire’s violent creativity, it forges a path of active transcendence through worldly rupture. This elemental reordering of the cosmos showcases Daoism’s ambition to harmonize diverse traditions, while crystallizing Chinese religiosity’s central theme: radical transformation over ascetic renunciation.

4. The Evolution of the Southern Celestial Star Deities’ Refining and Transcendence Doctrine Since the Six Dynasties

After the compilation of the ancient Lingbao scriptures, the concepts of the Southern Dipper, the Southern Palace, the Southern Chang, and the South Pole gradually merged, and the doctrine of the southern celestial star deities’ refining and transcendence spread widely, even influencing the religious rituals of the Celestial Masters during the medieval period. The Chisong zi zhangli 赤松子章曆 mentions, “We reverently invoke the Red Emperor and the Lord of Life-Sustenance in the South Pole and Southern Chang Palace... to ascend to the South Pole Palace of Longevity, where the name and form shall be transformed and recorded in the Jade Register of Life, crowned with the Red Emperor’s blessing for endless life 重煩南極南昌宮中赤帝、監生度命君……上詣南極長生宮中，爲某貿名易形，更上生籍玉曆之中，赤帝冠帶，延命無窮” (Daozang, vol. 11, p. 224). This passage reflects the roles of southern celestial star deities, granting devotees a sacred blessing of immortality by inscribing their names in the “Jade Register of Life”.

The concept of “fivefold refining of the living corpse”, as found in the Taishang dongxuan lingbao miedu wulian shengshi miaojing, also influenced the use of five-directional tomb-quelling stones during the Tang dynasty, which often bore inscriptions referring to “ascending to the Southern Palace”, signifying the idea of purifying the deceased through fire (Arisada 2021, pp. 109–26). The notion of “refining at Vermilion Mountain” also became popular among Tang literati. For instance, in the Wei xingyanggong huanglu zhaiwen 爲滎陽公黃籙齋文, the poet Li Shangyin 李商隱 (813?–858?) wrote, “From the highest imperial court to the common folk below, none escape the refining of Vermilion Mountain 上維皇屋，下及蒸人，莫不受煉朱陵”, showing the widespread acceptance of Vermilion Mountain’s refining power to guide souls beyond mortal suffering (Li Shangyin wen biannian jiaozhu 李商隱文編年校注, p. 1452).

By the Late Tang and Five Dynasties period, the high Daoist master Du Guangting particularly revered the southern celestial star deities. In his works, such as the Guangcheng ji, he often mentions the Southern Dipper and the South Pole, presenting them almost interchangeably. For Du Guangting, these deities collectively represent a unified faith in longevity and refining through fire, embodying a cohesive belief system centered on the southern celestial star deities.

In the mid-Northern Song period, the compilation of the Nandou jing reflects the integration of the Lingbao scriptures’ “water–fire refining” concept with the dualistic governance of life and death by the Southern and Northern Dippers.6 In this scripture, the Southern and Northern Dippers are portrayed as equally revered star deities. They are believed to work in harmony, generating all things and forming a spiritual framework in which the Northern and Southern Dippers respectively represent yin and yang, moon and sun, water and fire, and hun-soul 魂 and po-soul 魄.

After establishing that the Southern and Northern Dippers embody the properties of water and fire, the Nandou jing further emphasizes that “all life derives from water and fire 生生之生，全繫水火”. It designates the fifth star of the Southern Dipper as “Lord Wen Chang, Refiner of the Soul 文昌煉魂真君”, stating that “the Southern and Northern Dippers mold the po-soul and forge the hun-soul; once refined, the soul transitions to new life 南斗、北斗陶魄鑄魂，魂既受煉，乃遷轉生” (Daozang, vol. 11, pp. 351–52). This doctrinal foundation laid the ideological basis for the “two Dippers—water and fire” refining rituals. According to Jin Yunzhong’s Shangqing lingbao dafa, Song dynasty Daoist rituals symbolically linked water and fire elements to the celestial authority of the Northern and Southern Dippers. Wang Qizhen 王契真 (?–?), in his compilation of the Shangqing lingbao dafa, codified liturgical protocols mandating that ritual altars be arranged with a fire marsh positioned to symbolize the Southern Dipper’s orientation, while a water pool be installed corresponding to the Northern Dipper’s celestial alignment (Daozang, vol. 30, p. 1205). Zheng Sixiao’s Taiji jilian neifa further reveals that certain refining rites particularly venerated the Southern Dipper as their celestial sovereign, while recording widespread contemplative practices during water–fire refining rituals—including visualization of the Dipper constellations and silent recitation of stellar deity appellations (Daozang, vol. 10, pp. 456–57). These textual testimonies collectively show that by the Song–Yuan transition period, the ritual system integrating the Dippers’ veneration and water–fire refining techniques had become an indispensable core paradigm within Daoist salvation liturgies.

Emperor Huizong’s 宋徽宗 (1082–1135) Daoist devotion and the completion of the Duren jing’s final sixty volumes significantly enhanced the influence of the southern celestial star deities’ refining and transformation concept. The Zhao–Song court, in its governing philosophy, adopted “fire virtue” as the guiding principle of the nation’s fortune. From the founding of the dynasty, the imperial family embraced the belief in the southern Red Bright Heavenly Emperor (chiming tiandi 赤明天帝), as presented in the ancient Lingbao scripture, using this deity’s worship as the foundation for the divine legitimization of their rule, while also revering the Southern Dipper star god (Shi 2021, p. 26).

Emperor Huizong further identified himself with the fire-related celestial bodies, such as the planet Yinghuo, and with the southern star deities in Daoist mythology, thereby demonstrating his dual political and religious intentions. Early in his reign, Emperor Huizong conducted rituals to honor Yinghuo, and in the first year of Jianzhong Jingguo 建中靖國 (1101), he established the Yangde Temple 陽德觀 to venerate Yinghuo. In May of the first year of Chongning 崇寧 (1102), when Yinghuo got into the Southern Dipper,7 he immediately followed with the construction of the Changsheng Palace 長生宮 in July to further honor the planet, thus using this act to respond to celestial omens. By the third year of Chongning (1104), Zhang Guokang 張國康 (1056–1109) submitted a memorial to the court, suggesting, “May the court establish the Chongning Temple in an open and convenient location, and build a hall for the Fire Virtue True Lord in accordance with Yangde 乞應天下崇寧觀於空便處並修火德真君殿，依陽德” (Songshi 宋史, pp. 363–364, 2514). Following this, Emperor Huizong ordered the establishment of an altar for Yinghuo near the Southern suburbs, adjacent to the Red Emperor’s altar, with officials tasked to perform the required sacrifices at the proper times. The Yinghuo, also known as the Fire Star (huoxing 火星), is classified as one of the southern celestial star deities in the Lingbao scriptures. It is symbolically associated with the image of the southern Red Emperor, reinforcing the connection between these celestial beliefs and the imperial rituals.

In the early years of the Zhenghe 政和 era (1111–1118), Emperor Huizong, while recovering from an illness, dreamt of two Daoist priests who told him, “Your destiny is to promote our teachings 汝以宿命，當興我教”. Following this, Emperor Huizong vigorously began the construction of Daoist temples and palaces, most notably the restoration of the Yuqing Heyang Palace 玉清和陽宮 and the Yuxu Hall 玉虛殿 in the imperial palace, which had originally been dedicated to the celestial deities. As a result, Daoists referred to him as the “Red Bright and Harmonious Yang Heavenly Emperor (chiming heyang tiandi 赤明和陽天帝)” (Huangsong tongjian changbian jishi benmo 皇宋通鉴长编纪事本末, pp. 2129–30). Toward the end of the Zhenghe period, Emperor Huizong summoned the Daoist sage Xu Zhichang 徐知常 (1069–1154) and instructed Lin Lingsu 林靈素 (1075?–1119?) to respond. Upon meeting, Lin Lingsu proclaimed aloud, “… Jade Pure Sovereign of Divine Empyrean, is the eldest son of the Supreme Deity, ruling the southern realm and known as the Great Emperor of Longevity. Your Majesty is this very divine being ……神霄玉清王者，上帝之長子，主南方，號長生大帝君，陛下是也” (Songshi, p. 13528).

Li Zhengyang’s 李政陽 research demonstrates that the Great Emperor of Longevity manifests as an alternative form of the Red Bright Heavenly Emperor. By analogizing himself to this deity, Emperor Huizong anchored his imperial persona within the Northern Song’s early tradition of venerating the Red Bright Heavenly Emperor. Collaborating with Daoist clergy, Emperor Huizong recompiled the Duren jing, emphasizing divine figures such as the Great Emperor of Longevity and the Jade Pure Sovereign of Divine Empyrean. The text particularly elaborates on the Sovereign’s connection to the Southern Palace’s ritual refining and his transcendence into immortality (Li 2019, pp. 69–86). Emperor Huizong’s identifying with the “Great Emperor of Longevity” was not only a personal expression of his faith. It was also a means of reconstructing and elevating the worship of Daoist southern celestial star deities. This, in turn, reinforced the legitimacy of the emperor’s divine mandate and the religious authority of the emperor. These actions, taken together, created a culturally distinctive identity for the dynasty, embedding Daoism deeply into the political and social fabric of the nation.

Emperor Huizong’s self-identification as the Great Emperor of Longevity epitomized the integration of statecraft and religious doctrine in the Northern Song. By weaving imperial “Mandate of Heaven” rhetoric into the reconfigured pantheon of southern celestial deities through sacred symbolism, this strategy simultaneously reinforced the divine legitimacy of monarchy and facilitated Daoist ritual systems permeating state governance. Its essence lay in using stellar bureaucracy as a medium to project temporal imperial authority onto cosmic order.

The Northern Song revised edition of Duren jing creatively transformed Lingbao traditions, notably through the dual celestial bureaucracy system in Chapter 39, “Southern Palace Life-Extension Section (Nangong yansheng pin 南宮延生品)”. The Primordial Heavenly Lord established Ziwei and Taiwei 太微 Enclosures as “Polar Administrations”, governing the Northern and Southern Dippers, respectively. Ziwei oversaw the Three Officials (sanguan 三官) through its Taixuandu 太玄都 ministry, while Taiwei controlled life registers and spirit examinations via its Tianshu 天樞 and Tianji 天機 ministries—names directly inherited from the fifth and sixth stars of the Southern Dipper in Nandou jing. Significantly, the Southern Dipper’s Tianshu and Tianji were reinterpreted as the Southern Chang Upper Palace (i.e., Taiwei Palace) under direct jurisdiction of the Great Emperor of Longevity, completing Song theological reconfiguration of Taiwei’s significance (Daozang, vol. 1, p. 260). This cosmic model—aligning Ziwei with the northern celestial pole and Taiwei with its southern counterpart—expanded Daoist celestial governance by incorporating southern constellations, reflecting dialectical development of traditional astral systems rooted in Nandou jing’s complementary Northern–Southern Dipper cosmology.

The scripture further reveals that three celestial bureaus, namely, Taixuandu, Tianshu, and Tianji, mirror the three-ministries administrative structure that prevailed in the Song dynasty (Zhuge 2019, pp. 23–46). Subordination of Tianshu and Tianji ministries to the Great Emperor of Longevity, whose fire-aligned governance of Taiwei Enclosure was emphasized in Immortal Qingyuan’s 青元真人 commentaries, not only reinforced connections between Taiwei Palace and southern fire virtue but also demonstrated continuity between ancient Lingbao fire veneration and Song dynastic cosmology (Daozang, vol. 2, p. 265). Emperor Huizong’s early worship of the Yinghuo deity and subsequent deification as Great Emperor of Longevity in Shenxiao 神霄 theology synthesized ancient Lingbao texts with Nandou jing astral systems and contemporary governance, anchoring imperial authority within cosmic bureaucracy. Through positioning the Great Emperor as ruler of Taiwei Palace and controlling the Southern Dipper’s life registers, Song court embedded secular power into the celestial administrative core, achieving ultimate political expression of “sacred governance”.

Through the advocacy of Emperor Huizong and the Daoist priests in his entourage, the concept of refining and transcendence through the southern celestial star deities spread far and wide. The Lingbao yujian 靈寶玉鑒 records that virtuous deeds in life are inscribed in celestial archives, with souls posthumously refined in the Nanchang Fire Palace for rebirth (Daozang, vol. 10, p. 133). This doctrine permeated both religious circles and literati discourse after the Northern Song, as seen in Mao Min’s 毛敏 (?–?) ritual text extolling the South Pole as the fount of vitality (Quan songwen 全宋文, vol. 167, p. 41).

The “Southern Chang Refining 南昌煉” ritual, centered on southern celestial deity veneration, emerged as a core Daoist practice. In Zheng Sixiao’s Taiji jilian neifa, when delineating the Red-Sun (dangyang 丹陽) and Grotto-Sun lineages, it particularly emphasizes that the Red-Sun ritual system originates from the Southern Chang—which is in fact an alternative designation for the Lingbao tradition—thereby revealing its central position within the tradition (Daozang, vol. 10, p. 439). Wang Qizhen, in his Shangqing lingbao dafa, divides the refining practices into five categories, each corresponding to distinct practices, such as Southern Chang Refining and Lingbao Refining (Daozang, vol. 30, pp. 1205–6). The Lingbao wuliang duren shangjing dafa 靈寶無量度人上經大法 dedicates a chapter to codifying Nanchang rites (Daozang, vol. 3, pp. 953–56), while Qiu Chuji 丘處機 (1148–1227) of Quanzhen Daoism 全真道 documented practices of “gradual ascent to the fire refining court 漸陟南宮火煉庭” (Daozang, vol. 34, p. 482).

The southern pantheon expanded notably, with Wang Qizhen’s text enumerating over twenty deities overseeing soul, form, and embryonic refining in Nanchang Palace (Daozang, vol. 30, p. 1095). In addition to the Southern Chang Refining, the ritual of refining during the Song dynasty often included the conferral of the “Precious Talisman for Ascending to Heaven (shengtian baolu 生天寶籙)”. These talismans were inscribed with Southern Dipper cryptonyms, amplifying astral mysticism (T. Liu 2023, pp. 402–3).

Zheng Sixiao reconceptualized Southern Chang Refining through internal alchemy. His treatise equates the heart with Nanchang Upper Palace, positing cardiac secrets as liberation keys. Practitioners visualize the elixir field transforming into Vermilion Mountain Flame Palace, behold the Southern Dipper’s radiance, then inscribe talismans while chanting, epitomizing the fusion of inner cultivation and ritual technē (Daozang, vol. 3, pp. 953–56).

Ming–Qing Daoism elevated the Southern Dipper’s soteriological role. Chen Fuhui’s 陳復慧 (1734–1802) Guangcheng yizhi 廣成儀制 extols its dual governance over life-bestowal and soul-refining: “Life’s inception belongs to the Southern Dipper; refined souls ascend through cinnabar realms 注生所生，數隸南辰，煉魂陶魄，光依丹界” (Zangwai daoshu 藏外道書, vol. 14, p. 286). The Qing edition Nandou jing chanwei 南斗經闡微 adds ethical dimensions, declaring that the Southern Dipper judges mortal deeds to determine posthumous transcendence (Nandou jing chanwei, p. 17). This refining cosmology transcends corporeal limits. It forges spiritual alchemy between individual destiny and cosmic order, embodying the transcendent essence of Daoist soteriology.

5. Conclusions

Daoism employs a multitude of terms to designate the southern celestial star deities and their associated entities. Among the most common are the Southern Dipper, the Southern Palace, the Southern Chang, and the South Pole. These concepts are closely linked with themes such as “longevity” and “fire-refining”, and although they each have distinct origins, they are often intertwined and difficult to differentiate. In fact, during the Han and the Jin periods, Daoism already embraced beliefs concerning the southern celestial star deities. The “Southern Dipper” refers to the Dou mansion, symbolizing the stars of immortality. The “Southern Palace” is possibly the product of the early Shangqing school’s reverence for Southern Marchmount, referring to the celestial palace and the residence that governs life and death, corresponding to the “Vermilion Mountain” of Southern Marchmount and Mount Huo. The “Southern Chang” could be a combined term for both the “Southern Dipper” and “Wenchang”, reflecting the interrelation and fusion of various star deities. While the “South Pole” refers to the Elder Star or, more broadly, the southern celestial realm, it is sometimes associated with the concept of the “corporeal deities”. The meanings of these terms go beyond the mere physical existence of stars, encapsulating Daoism’s profound understanding and reverence for life, fate, and the mysterious forces of the cosmos.

During the Six Dynasties, the ancient Lingbao scriptures inherited the mythological tradition of earlier religions, wherein “fire” symbolized the alchemical refining process. These scriptures extol “fire” as a powerful force for purification and regeneration, and it is said that the Primordial Heavenly Lord once employed flames to refine the “true scriptures”, embodying the primal essence of the universe. Such fiery metamorphosis finds vivid expression in the legend of A-Qiuzeng. By bathing in sacred flames, this female ascetic underwent bodily transformation into male form, exemplifying fire’s role as a catalyst for existential metamorphosis. Crucially, the Lingbao scriptures utilized the Five Elements doctrine (with fire corresponding to the south) to synthesize the disparate cults of southern celestial star deities into a coherent system. This synthesis not only highlights the sacred religious function of the southern celestial star deities in “refining death and transcending life” through fire but also distills their philosophical significance in mediating the transitions between life and death.

Since the emergence of the ancient Lingbao scriptures, the doctrine of refining and transcendence by the southern celestial star deities continuously evolved and deepened in later Daoist texts. Firstly, the emergence of the Nandou jing during the mid-Northern Song period marked the fusion of the “water–fire refining” philosophy in the ancient Lingbao scriptures with the concept of the Southern and Northern Dippers governing life and death, laying the foundation for the formation of the “two Dippers—water and fire” refining rituals. Secondly, the Song version of the Duren jing combined the South Pole’s Great Emperor of Longevity with the Southern Palace’s refining doctrine, thus bestowing the Great Emperor of Longevity with the prestigious role of overseeing the Southern Chang Upper Palace. This emphasizes the Zhao–Song dynasty’s reverence for the fire element and the imperial authority of the Daoist monarch. Finally, from the late Northern Song onwards, the Southern Chang refining ritual gradually became one of the central practices in Daoist refining ceremonies, with the concept of southern celestial star deities’ refining and transcendence becoming increasingly embedded in the collective consciousness.

In conclusion, the ancient Lingbao scriptures did not passively inherit early star deity worship. Instead, they systematically reconstructed it based on their unique theological framework. By integrating scattered astral concepts, such as the Southern Dipper and the South Pole, into the Five Elements framework of “south corresponding to fire”, the Lingbao tradition transformed fire from a natural phenomenon into a sacred medium of salvation. This elevation imbued fire with dual attributes: cosmogony and individual salvation. As a result, the southern celestial star deities’ system was re-encoded as a soteriological mechanism that simultaneously embodied the construction of cosmic order and the transcendence of individual existence. The reconfiguration of the southern celestial star deities’ system led to a reshaping of the theoretical framework of Daoist views on life and death. Simultaneously, the salvific mode, integrating astronomy, sacred geography, and bodily cultivation, played a facilitating role in the institutionalization of the “refining and transcendence” concept within Song and Yuan Daoist rituals. Such a phenomenon also provides a crucial case study for understanding the multidimensional interactions between cosmology, political metaphor, and bodily techniques in Chinese religious traditions.