Mapping the Daoist Ritual Cosmos: A Social Network Analysis of Generals in Song–Ming Liturgies

Abstract

This study employs social network analysis to illuminate the intricate relationships within Daoist exorcism rituals from the Southern Song to the Yuan dynasty, as documented in two pivotal compilations: Pearls Left Behind from the Sea of Ritual (Fahai Yizhu 法海遺珠) and Collected Essentials of Daoist Methods (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元). While previous scholarship focused on individual rituals or generals using traditional document analysis, this article introduces a novel digital humanities methodology. By treating the Daoist generals summoned in these rituals as network nodes, we map and analyze their co-occurrence patterns, offering a comprehensive understanding of the evolving ritual landscape. Our analysis reveals a significant expansion in the scale of exorcism rituals from Fahai Yizhu to Daofa Huiyuan, indicating a shift from concise manuals to more systematic frameworks with clearer factional organization. Specifically, the Great Demon-Subjugating Ritual of Shangqing Tianpeng (Shangqing Tianpeng Fumu Dafa 上清天蓬伏魔大法) and various Marshal Zhao exorcism rituals exhibit the largest scales, reflecting the widespread popularity of Heavenly Commander Tianpeng (Tianpeng 天蓬) beliefs and Marshal Zhao’s capacity to integrate diverse pantheons, including local deities, plague gods, thunder generals, and “rampant soldiers” (changing 猖兵). Key figures like Yin Jiao (殷郊), Zhao Gongming (趙公明), Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯), Ma Sheng (馬勝), Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫), and Guan Yu (關羽) demonstrate high centrality. Notably, Ma Sheng, Zhao Gongming (趙公明), and Guan Yu (關羽) play increasingly pivotal roles in Daofa Huiyuan, while Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯) and Song Wuji (宋無忌) experience hierarchical reversals, suggesting an augmented importance of local deities after the Southern Song. This pioneering SNA application offers a robust framework for understanding these complex interconnections.

1. Introduction

Contemporary Daoist scholarship regards the centuries encompassing the Song, Jin-Yuan, and early Ming periods as the tradition’s second major transformative era. In response to sweeping sociopolitical changes, Daoist communities developed a diverse range of new rituals, new Daoist Scriptures, and inner alchemy. Notable among these were the Orthodox Method of the Celestial Heart (Tianxin Zhengfa 天心正法), the Thunder Rites of Divine Empyrean (Shenxiao Leifa 神霄雷法), and the Great Ritual of Numinous Treasure (Lingbao Dafa 靈寶大法). During this period, significant overlap emerged between formally ordained priests and independent ritual specialists, and their mutual influence came to shape the religious culture of late imperial China in profound ways.

Two ritual anthologies are central to understanding this transformation: Pearls Left Behind from the Sea of Ritual (Fahai Yizhu 法海遺珠) and Collected Essentials of Daoist Methods (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元). These compendia preserve a wide array of newly emergent liturgies associated with the Divine Empyrean (Shenxiao 神霄), Celestial Heart (Tianxin 天心), and Pure Tenuity (Qingwei 清微) schools, and they document diverse ritual procedures such as spirit summoning, altar consecration, medium incubation, and investigative exorcism, reflecting the diversity of ritual responses to worldly needs.

Among these, exorcistic rituals are particularly significant. They were primarily employed to treat various ailments in popular society that were perceived as unnatural. In addition to the medical explanations of the time, which involved theories of wind disorders, epidemic miasma, or imbalances of qi and blood, many illnesses were also attributed to demonic afflictions (Xiebing 邪病) or spirit-induced illnesses (Suibing 祟病). These were believed to result from malevolent ghosts, vengeful spirits, or unresolved karmic retributions from previous lives. To address such conditions, members of the community often invited shamans, ritual masters, Daoist priests, or Buddhist monks to perform rituals (Davis 2001).

In these exorcistic ceremonies, the ritual specialists summoned divine generals and commanded them to pursue and interrogate the malevolent entities. The harmful spirits were then either appeased and released through merit-making jiao offerings or expelled by ritual force through the use of talismans, thunder rites, and other methods of ritualized coercion. These practices aimed to resolve the underlying spiritual causes of the illness and bring about healing.

Recent scholarship has made significant progress in clarifying the structure and content of the ritual systems preserved in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan. These studies have deepened our understanding of Daoist ritual ontology, the roles and interactions of ritual specialists, and the broader developmental trajectory of Daoist liturgies from the Song and Yuan periods onward. This foundational research provides critical support for the present study’s investigation into the ritual networks and patterns of transmission embedded within these texts.

Two ritual anthologies are central to understanding this transformation: Pearls Left Behind from the Sea of Ritual (Fahai Yizhu 法海遺珠) and Collected Essentials of Daoist Methods (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元). These compendia preserve a wide array of newly emergent liturgies associated with the Divine Empyrean (Shenxiao 神霄), Celestial Heart (Tianxin 天心), and Pure Tenuity (Qingwei 清微) schools, and they document diverse ritual procedures such as spirit summoning, altar consecration, medium incubation, and investigative exorcism.

Beginning with foundational contributions by scholars such as Michel Strickmann (司馬虛), Kristofer M. Schipper (施舟人), John Lagerwey (勞格文), and Judith M. Boltz (鮑菊隱), and followed by subsequent case studies by Florian C. Reiter (常志靜), Paul R. Katz (康豹), Edward L. Davis (戴安德), and Mark Meulenbeld (梅林寶), research has gradually constructed a clearer picture of these ritual systems and their patterns of transmission. These studies have not only clarified the structure and content of the liturgies preserved in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan but have also advanced broader understandings of Daoist ritual ontology, the roles and interactions of ritual specialists, and the overall developmental trajectory of Daoist liturgies from the Song and Yuan periods onward.

Despite these significant advances, most existing studies continue to focus on individual rites or discrete lineages. Examples include the Orthodox Method of the Celestial Heart (Tianxin Zhengfa 天心正法), the Thunder Rites of Divine Empyrean (Shenxiao Leifa 神霄雷法), the Method of Mount Feng (Fengyue Fa 酆岳法), and the Method of the Fire Office (Huofu Fa 火府法), as well as the marshal traditions of the Ritual of Marshal Ma (Ma Yuanshuai Fa 馬元帥法), the Ritual of Marshal Wen (Wen Yuanshuai Fa 溫元帥法), and the Ritual of Marshal Zhao (Zhao Yuanshuai Fa 趙元帥法). Scholars typically examine these practices by tracing lines of transmission through patriarchs or identifying the generals referenced in ritual manuals, from which they infer possible connections among the practices. However, this keyword-driven method reflects a conventional index-based approach to humanistic inquiry and faces two well-documented limitations. First, many transmission patriarchs recorded in Song–Yuan ritual texts are pseudonymous or entirely fictive, serving mainly to assert the sanctity and authority of a given method. Second, Daoist transmission was rarely a single, linear master–disciple chain. Priests and ritual specialists often cultivated several liturgies concurrently and acquired additional methods through collegial exchange or ritual swapping or by purchasing and printing manuals. Relying solely on patriarchal attributions or officiating generals therefore provides an incomplete and potentially misleading picture.

A methodological recalibration is thus in order. This study employs social network analysis from a digital humanities toolkit to map the interconnections among the rituals in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan. Taking the various officiating generals identified in each liturgy as network nodes, the analysis offers a more comprehensive view of how these Song–Yuan innovations relate to one another and highlights their distinctive features. By introducing this approach, this article seeks to refine our understanding of the emergent Daoist ritual repertoire between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries.

2. Literature Review

Digital humanities in religious studies encompasses the full spectrum of engagements between computational technologies and humanistic inquiry. Hutchings (2012) identifies four roles that digital tools can assume within religion scholarship, which may broadly be divided into two modes: technology as research instrument and technology as research subject. In contemporary networked society, the entanglement of technological practice and religious life has become increasingly pronounced. Hutchings (2015) therefore organizes religious digital humanities work into three focal areas: sacred-text studies, digital religion, and digital theology. This taxonomy aligns with Presner (2010) and Berry (2012), who call for sustained dialog between humanistic interpretation and the digital environment. Whereas first-generation projects concentrated on digitizing texts and conducting large-scale word frequency analyses, current research emphasizes hermeneutics and cross-disciplinary collaboration.

Both Hutchings (2015) and Schroeder (2016) caution, however, that religious studies continue to occupy a peripheral position in the global digital humanities landscape. Digital methods undoubtedly broaden textual analysis and resource integration, and they promote collaboration across disciplines, institutions, and borders while deepening public engagement (Cantwell and Petersen 2021). Yet disparities in cultural capital still leave certain subfields with limited methodological resources. Schroeder’s work on Coptic biblical manuscripts illustrates how digitization policies that privilege major languages often marginalize rarer traditions, compelling scholars to innovate through interfield collaboration and critical reflexivity.

Within East Asian religions, similar imbalances are evident. Buddhist digital humanities, supported by early and sustained investments, benefit from robust repositories and tools such as the Tibetan and Himalayan Digital Library and the CBETA Electronic Tripiṭaka (Germano 2007; Wittern 2002). Research has subsequently expanded to include text mining, geographic information systems, and social network analysis (Chen et al. 2024). Daoist digital humanities, by contrast, have attracted less international attention. Important exceptions include Feng et al. (2012), who digitized the Daofa Huiyuan and analyzed its talismanic lore. Goossaert (2023) likewise advanced the field by compiling data from thirteen late imperial spirit-writing altars, mapping the interactions of 478 deities with Gephi, and distinguishing core, local, and intermediary divine figures. His work demonstrates the pivotal roles of thunder marshals and the Eight Immortals in these altar networks and exemplifies the utility of social network analysis and visualization for East Asian religion.

The rapid maturation of large language models presents both opportunities and challenges. Hung (2020) argues that natural language processing can support scholarship through information extraction, semantic analysis, and generative question-answering, whereas Zheng (2024) explores ethical considerations raised by humanistic Buddhism in the AI era. Disparities in cultural capital continue to shape the uneven development of digital humanities across religious fields, yet foundational efforts in digitization and tool building remain indispensable. Expanding repositories and refining analytical instruments will narrow resource gaps and incentivize greater engagement by humanists, a goal of particular relevance to scholars in Taiwan.

This study employs Daoist digital humanities as a test case. Building on existing work with the Daofa Huiyuan, it incorporates the Fahai Yizhu and couples a generative question-answering system with social network analysis. The aim is to reveal previously implicit patterns of ritual transmission within these compendia and to advance the broader project of AI-assisted humanistic interpretation.

3. Materials and Methods

This study deliberately avoids framing Daoist ritual history in linear terms of textual precedence or patriarchal authority. Rather than treating the earliest-dated liturgy or the most illustrious master as the single point of origin, each rite is conceptualized as a composite assembled from the recurrent recombination of generals and ritual procedures. By decomposing liturgies into these granular elements, we can reconstruct a network of relationships and trace transmission patterns with greater analytical precision. Chronological and regional indicators in the sources remain indispensable; traditional philological methods and expert judgment are therefore applied to establish each rite’s spatiotemporal horizons. Juxtaposing these findings with network metrics yields a more comprehensive portrait of the ritual corpora preserved in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan.

Generals constitute the axial nodes of this network. From the Song period onward, newly emergent liturgies routinely marshal a hierarchy of military deities—figures labeled marshal gods in Japanese scholarship but generally termed generals in current Daoist studies. Most manuals display a stable template of patriarch or grand master, principal general, assistant generals, and operative rite. Even when the patriarch or assistants are omitted, the principal general is almost invariably identified, and the same deity may function as a principal in one text and an assistant in another. Generals thus serve as pivotal connectors across exorcism rituals.

Social network analysis provides the methodological framework for mapping these connections. Integrating sociometrics with graph theory, SNA enables the macro-level visualization of extensive structures while preserving sensitivity to micro-level patterns. Although large-scale projects such as the China Biographical Database (CBDB) have demonstrated the utility of SNA for Chinese history, its application to Daoist materials remains limited. Notable exceptions include Stanley-Baker’s study of Shangqing pharmacological geography (2019) and the digital analysis of Song–Yuan ritual corpora by Xiao-Xiao, Sugimoto, and Matsumoto (Feng et al. 2012). Building on these precedents, the present investigation constructs a general-centered network to compare the structures and transmission pathways embedded in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan.

The research design unfolds in three phases—compilation, construction, and analysis. First, every liturgy and general recorded in the two anthologies is extracted and entered into a structured database. Second, two matrices are produced: a general co-occurrence matrix that logs which generals appear together in each rite and a general attribute matrix that records titles, backgrounds, and textual sources. Third, these matrices are imported into UCINET. After converting the two-mode data to single-mode form and removing noise, degree, betweenness, and closeness centrality, measures are calculated. The visualizations generated from these metrics (see Figure 1) reveal the multiplex networks of Song, Yuan, and Ming period Daoist rituals, illuminating both their diversity and their recurrent patterns of recombination.

4. Results

4.1. Observations on Daoist Ritual Practices

After completing the phases of network compilation, construction, and analysis, this study identified 136 discrete Daoist rituals, 42 preserved in Fahai Yizhu and 94 in Daofa Huiyuan. Across these dossiers appear 1264 distinct generals, with some individuals occurring in both sources. When duplicate occurrences are counted, the two anthologies record 1712 appearances in total, which yields an average of 12.59 generals per rite. These figures point to a ritual field of substantial scale and a densely layered personnel network worthy of detailed investigation. The following section first outlines the aggregate dimensions of the two anthologies, then presents several focused observations.

4.1.1. The Overall Scale of the Daoist Ritual Corpus

In terms of overall scale,

Table 1. Overall scale of Daoist ritual material in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan.

	Rituals	Total Occurrences of Generals	Average Generals per Ritual
Fahai Yizhu	42	276	6.57
Daofa Huiyuan	94	1436	15.28
Combined	136	1712	12.59

shows that the two anthologies display pronounced differences in both the number of generals and their frequency of appearance. The 42 ritual dossiers in Fahai Yizhu record 276 distinct generals, yielding an average of 6.57 generals per rite (276 instances divided by 42 dossiers). By contrast, the 94 dossiers in Daofa Huiyuan list 1436 generals or an average of 15.28 generals per rite (1436 instances divided by 94 dossiers). Each ritual in Daofa Huiyuan thus summons approximately 2.33 times more generals than its counterpart in Fahai Yizhu, indicating not only a larger ritual corpus but also a substantially expanded operational scale.

The internal organization of the two collections further reinforces this contrast. Several fascicles of Fahai Yizhu simply compile discrete ritual texts and typically mention only the commanding marshal and the operative method, without identifying lineage masters or auxiliary officers. Daofa Huiyuan rarely employs such an abridged format. With the exception of fascicles thirty-six and thirty-seven, which transmit the Great Ritual of the Four Marshals of Pure Tenuity (Qingwei Sishuai Dafa 清微四帥大法), the anthology systematically specifies lineage provenance, named patriarchs, principal and assistant generals, and other ritual structural components.

In this regard, Fahai Yizhu functions as an early ritual handbook that preserves concise liturgical templates, whereas Daofa Huiyuan emphasizes lineage authority and elaborates a more structured ritual. This contrast reflects a broader historical trajectory, moving from relatively compact “small-scale rites” to more extensive and systematized “large-scale rites.”

4.1.2. Observations on the Scale of Individual Daoist Rituals

In addition to the aggregate overview, this study evaluates each of the 136 ritual dossiers individually. For every liturgy, the number of generals, their names, and the precise location of each reference were digitized and entered into a relational database. This fine-grained inventory yields several notable findings. The largest dossier is the Great Demon-Subjugating Ritual of Shangqing Tianpeng (Shangqing Tianpeng Fumo Dafa 上清天蓬伏魔大法), preserved in Collected Essentials of Daoist Methods (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元), which summons 134 generals. The size of this roster reflects an extensive large-scale elaboration centered on the Marshal of Tianpeng (Tianpeng Yuanshuai 天蓬元帥) and the Tianpeng Spell (Tianpeng Zhou 天蓬咒).

Although Song dynasty miscellanies contain only four brief references to this deity or incantation, the ritual corpus reveals that Tianpeng invocations were widely employed. Many generals listed in this dossier, including the Great Sage of Celestial Dipper (Tiangang Dasheng 天罡大聖), also appear in other liturgies, suggesting that the Tianpeng complex circulated far more extensively than is evident from narrative sources alone. This indicates that the Tianpeng ritual remained popular among Daoist priests and ritual specialists, even as the cult of Perfected Warrior (Zhenwu 真武) gradually rose to greater prominence in lay religious practice.

A review at the level of individual generals reveals that the rites commanded by Zhao Gongming (趙公明) are also exceptionally large in scale. Daofa Huiyuan transmits three liturgies centered on Zhao: Secret Method of Marshal Zhao of the Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Xuantan Zhao Yuanshuai Mi Fa 正一玄壇趙元帥秘法), Great Ritual of the Dragon-Tiger Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Longhu Xuantan Dafa 正一龍虎玄壇大法), and Secret Method of Marshal Zhao, Commander of the Flying Tigers, of the Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Xuantan Feihu Dudu Zhao Yuanshuai Mi Fa 正一玄壇飛虎都督趙元帥秘法). Each of these liturgies summons more than fifty generals, a figure surpassed only by the Tianpeng, Thunder, and Fengdu rituals.

Close inspection reveals that these Zhao Gongming rites incorporate a wide range of regional and thematic pantheons. They include local historical deities such as Wu Yuan (伍員) and Bai Qi (白起), plague deities including the Four Fierce Generals (Sifang Mengjiang 四方猛將) and the Six Poison Gods (Liudu Dashen 六毒大神), and local witchcraft spirits (ChangBing 猖兵). Together, these elements constitute a large and heterogeneous ritual complex, demonstrating how Daofa Huiyuan reorganizes diverse local cults under the authoritative command of Marshal Zhao (趙元帥).

Quantitative comparison highlights the scale disparity between the two anthologies. The nine largest dossiers in the combined corpus all come from Daofa Huiyuan and list between 36 and 134 generals. The most expansive liturgy in Fahai Yizhu ranks only tenth overall with 35 generals.

Table 2. Ranked scale of individual Daoist rites in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan.

Rank	Ritual	Number of Generals	Source
1	Great Demon-Subjugating Ritual of Shangqing Tianpeng (Shangqing Tianpeng Fumo Dafa 上清天蓬伏魔大法)	134	Daofa Huiyuan
2	High Jade Empyrean Dou Heaven Great Thunder Ritual of the Three-Five Combined Register (Gaoshang Jingxiao Sanwu Hunhe DOUTian Dalei Langshu 高上景霄三五混合都天大雷琅書)	98	Daofa Huiyuan
3	Great Ritual of Summoning and Investigation in Fengdu (Fengdu Kaozhao Dafa 酆都考召大法)	90	Daofa Huiyuan
4	Secret Method of Marshal Zhao of the Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Xuantan Zhao Yuanshuai Mi Fa 正一玄壇趙元帥秘法)	69	Daofa Huiyuan
5	Great Ritual of the Dragon-Tiger Mysterious Altar (Zhengyi Longhu Xuantan Dafa 正一龍虎玄壇大法)	61	Daofa Huiyuan
6	Secret Method of Marshal Zhao, Commander of the Flying Tigers (Zhengyi Xuantan Feihu Dudu Zhao Yuanshuai Mi Fa 正一玄壇飛虎都督趙元帥秘法)	57	Daofa Huiyuan
7	Primordial One Innate Sublime Dao One Qi Wish-Fulfilling Great Ritual (Hunyuan Xiantian Miaodao Yiqi Ruyi Dafa 混元先天妙道一炁如意大法)	45	Daofa Huiyuan
8	Great Ritual of Fire Rhinoceros Immortal Marshal Ma (Huixi Daxian Ma Lingguan Dafa 火犀大仙馬靈官大法)	37	Daofa Huiyuan
9	Great Ritual of the Fivefold Response in Harmonization with the Spirits from the Luminous Cavern of Shangqing (Shangqing Dongming Xieshen Wuying Dafa 上清洞明協神五應大法)	36	Daofa Huiyuan
10	Thunder Ritual of Taisui Wuchun (Taisui Wuchun Leifa 太歲武春雷法)	35	Fahai Yizhu

presents the ranked distribution of individual ritual scales in the two collections.

4.2. General-Centered Social Network Analysis

In conducting social network analysis, the ritual texts were transformed into affiliation matrices to record the relationships between generals and individual rituals. Each dossier was converted from textual data into numerical data, which was then organized into a matrix with generals listed along the horizontal axis and rituals along the vertical axis. The researchers compiled two sample affiliation matrices for illustration: one based on Fahai Yizhu (see

Table 3. Sample affiliation matrix for Fahai Yizhu.

Ritual	Ding Sheng (丁勝)	Wang De (王德)	Yin Jiao (殷郊)	Ma Wen (馬文)	Han Bao (韓寶)
Secret Method of Taisui (Taisui Mi Fa 太歲秘法)	0	0	1	0	0
Thunder Ritual of Taisui Wuchun (Taisui Wuchun Leifa 太歲武春雷法)	1	1	1	1	1
Great Ritual of Yin Marshal, Inspector of Earth Offices (Jiucha Dici Yin Shuai Dafa 糾察地司殷帥大法)	0	0	1	0	1

) and the other on Daofa Huiyuan (see

Table 4. Sample affiliation matrix from Daofa Huiyuan.

Ritual	Wu Wan (吳宛)	Gai Yan (蓋延)	Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	Liu Yuanda (劉元達)
Great Demon-Subjugating Ritual of Shangqing Tianpeng (Shangqing Tianpeng Fumo Dafa 上清天蓬伏魔大法)	0	0	1	0
Secret Method of the Golden Wheel Law-Enforcer for Wish Fulfillment at the Dragon-Tiger Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Longhu Xuantan Jinlun Zhifa Ruyi Mi Fa 正一龍虎玄壇金輪執法如意秘法)	1	1	1	1
Great Ritual of the Dragon-Tiger Mysterious Altar(Zhengyi Longhu Xuantan Dafa 正一龍虎玄壇大法)	1	0	1	1
Great Ritual of Sublime Cinnabar Illumination from Chongming of Western Numinous in the Pure Tenuity Tradition (Qingwei Xiling Chongming Danhua Dafa 清微西靈崇明丹華大法)	0	0	1	0

). In Table 3 and Table 4, if a particular general appears in a given ritual, for example, Yin Jiao (殷郊) appears in Secret Method of Taisui (Taisui Mi Fa 太歲祕法), this is represented in the matrix as a 1. If a general does not appear in the ritual, for example, Ding Sheng (丁勝), Wang De (王德), Ma Wen (馬文), and Han Bao (韓寶) do not appear in Secret Method of Taisui (Taisui Mi Fa 太歲祕法), it is recorded as a 0. Once all dossiers were encoded in this manner, the researchers used three centrality measures, namely degree, betweenness, and closeness, to analyze and compare the network structures of generals and rituals in the two anthologies.

4.2.1. Social Network Results for Fahai Yizhu

An analysis of the general-to-ritual matrix derived from Fahai Yizhu reveals that Yin Jiao (殷郊) ranks the highest across all three centrality measures: degree centrality, closeness centrality, and betweenness centrality (see

Table 5. Centrality rankings of generals in Fahai Yizhu.

Rank	Degree Centrality	Value	Betweenness Centrality	Value	Closeness Centrality	Value
1	Yin Jiao (殷郊)	53	Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	420	Yin Jiao (殷郊)	0.258
2	Han Bao (韓寶)	46	Yin Jiao (殷郊)	412.5	Han Bao (韓寶)	0.257
3	Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	39	Han Bao (韓寶)	182	Ding Sheng (丁勝)	0.256
4	Ding Sheng (丁勝)	34	Wen Qiong (溫瓊)	160	Wang De (王德)	0.256
5	Wang De (王德)	34	Song Wuji (宋無忌)	123	He Zhong (何仲)	0.256

). Degree centrality indicates the number of direct connections a general has with rituals, reflecting the extent of his participation. Closeness centrality measures how efficiently a general can reach all other nodes in the network, indicating his accessibility within the overall structure. Betweenness centrality captures the extent to which a general serves as an intermediary on the shortest paths between other nodes, signifying his role as a structural bridge.

Yin Jiao’s (殷郊) prominence in all three metrics underscores his pivotal role in the ritual system depicted in Fahai Yizhu. Bearing the title Fierce Officer of the Earth Offices (Dici Mengli 地司猛吏), Yin Jiao possesses a compound identity that merges the functions of a thunder deity, underworld official, and plague marshal. As such, he is frequently invoked in rituals concerning rain invocation, demon expulsion, and pestilence eradication. He is also occasionally identified with the Taisui Deity (Taisui Shen 太歲神), a conflation that links him to Dipper-petition rites and further extends his ritual jurisdiction.

Immediately following Yin Jiao (殷郊) in centrality rankings is Han Bao (韓寶), whose elevated position reflects his consistent appearance as Yin Jiao’s principal lieutenant. His close structural proximity to the leading general enhances his visibility and influence within the ritual network. Similarly, Ding Sheng (丁勝) and Wang De (王德), who are also subordinate generals under Yin Jiao, benefit from this association, appearing in multiple rituals and thereby exhibiting moderate centrality. More broadly, Yin Jiao, originally the Yamāntaka of Esoteric Buddhism (Da Weide Mingwang 大威德明王), was transformed into the Daoist TaiSui of the Earth (Dishi Taisui 地司太歲) during the Tang and Song dynasties, responsible for controlling the movement of the stars and violating local taboos. His three-headed, eight-armed figure was considered to possess immense martial power, making him a widely summoned commander. Han Bao (韓寶), Ding Sheng (丁勝), and Wang De (王德) were his deputy commanders, and because of Yin Jiao’s leadership, they were frequently summoned, thus demonstrating a strong centrality.

4.2.2. General-Centered Network in Daofa Huiyuan

In the Daofa Huiyuan matrix,

Table 6. Centrality rankings of generals in Daofa Huiyuan.

Rank	Degree Centrality	Value	Betweenness Centrality	Value	Closeness Centrality	Value
1	Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	457	Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	96,886	Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	0.272
2	Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯)	347	Ma Sheng (馬勝)	63,493	Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯)	0.270
3	Ma Sheng (馬勝)	295	Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯)	48,141	Ma Sheng (馬勝)	0.269
4	Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫)	239	Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫)	32,512	Gao Diao (高刁)	0.263
5	Gao Diao (高刁)	236	Gao Diao (高刁)	31,781	Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫)	0.262

shows that the generals with the highest centrality scores are Zhao Gongming (趙公明), Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯), Ma Sheng (馬勝), and Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫). These figures also rank among the most frequently summoned generals in Fahai Yizhu, reflecting their broad ritual authority across multiple Daoist liturgical sources. Among them, Zhao Gongming (趙公明) stands out as particularly prominent. His cult is already documented in texts from the Six Dynasties period, where he is identified as one of the Five Directional Plague Deities (Wufang Wenyishen 五方瘟疫神). By the Song dynasty, he had become closely affiliated with the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi 正一), led by the Heavenly Master (Tianshi 天師), whose institutional support shaped the formation and standardization of many key ritual systems.

Many of the major ritual developments in the Song period, including the early Celestial Heart rites (Tianxin 天心), the Divine Empyrean thunder methods (Shenxiao 神霄), and the emergence of marshal-centered liturgies, were formulated under the auspices of the Heavenly Master lineage. Within this ritual framework, Zhao Gongming (趙公明) emerged as a legitimate and authoritative figure to serve as commanding general.

Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫), Xin Zhongyi (辛忠義), and Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯) were often designated as principal commanders of thunder rites during the Song dynasty and were collectively known as the Three Marshals of Thunder (Leiting Sanshuai 雷霆三帥). Their original roles centered on delivering celestial petitions and inducing clouds and rain. Over time, however, the thunder marshal’s symbolic power was expanded to include exorcizing demons and malevolent spirits. Zhao Gongming’s association with key Zhengyi Daoist rituals (正一道法)—such as Tianxin Zhengfa (天心正法), Shenxiao Fa (神霄法), and various exorcistic rites developed during the Southern Song—further reinforced his status as a principal ritual commander. These connections suggest that Zhao Gongming (趙公明) was widely recognized as the leading figure in both thunder-based and plague-expelling liturgical contexts.

Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫) and Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯) both bear the title Thunder Marshal. They can be treated collectively as a paired command or separated into distinct liturgical units, and in either configuration they remain pivotal to thunder invocations and to apotropaic procedures. Also striking is the ascent of Ma Sheng (馬勝). Sheng Ma originates in Esoteric Buddhism, where he is known as Ucchuṣma (Weiji Jingang 穢跡金剛). Initially venerated primarily at local shrines, he was incorporated into the Daoist pantheon only during the Southern Song period. He represents a relatively new general, yet he now occupies leading positions in several dossiers. This trajectory illustrates the growing impact of popular religion on Daoist ritual. Shrine deities with broad lay followings were considered easy to summon and highly effective, and consequently they were promoted to chief marshal rank while earlier chiefs were reassigned to subordinate roles.

Overall, the network metrics indicate that the constellation of generals in Daofa Huiyuan is considerably more extensive and structurally complex than that in Fahai Yizhu. When the two anthologies are analyzed within a unified comparative framework, the evidence points to a significant evolution in Daoist liturgical practice. The concise ritual handbooks preserved in Fahai Yizhu are supplanted in Daofa Huiyuan by more elaborate rituals that articulate genealogical lineages, administrative hierarchies, and operative techniques in greater detail.

Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, respectively, illustrate the expansion of the ritual network based on the three centrality measures: degree centrality, betweenness centrality, and closeness centrality. This study first employed the social network analysis software UCINET version 6 to calculate the centrality values for each general appearing in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan, in order to assess their relative importance within the ritual networks. To enhance the interpretability of these results, the visualization software Gephi version 0.10.1 was used to transform the numerical data into graphical representations. In each figure, a node represents an individual general, and the size of the node corresponds to its centrality score, thereby reflecting the general’s influence within the textual network. The combined results of the three centrality measures demonstrate that, beginning in the Southern Song period, the Daoist ritual system not only expanded significantly in scale but also underwent increasing structural complexity and institutionalization. This shift indicates a broader reorganization and formalization of ritual authority in the Daoist tradition.

4.3. Shifts in the Position of Generals in Fahai Yizhu and Daofa Huiyuan

A comparison of the two anthologies reveals that changes in position are widespread. Among the 136 ritual dossiers examined, more than 84 contain at least one instance in which a general appears as a chief marshal in one rite and as a deputy in another. Thus, over half of the corpus displays some degree of rank mobility. In Fahai Yizhu, only one figure, Song Wuji (宋無忌), shifts between the chief and deputy roles. In Daofa Huiyuan, the phenomenon is much more frequent: forty generals, including Liu Sheng (劉勝), Deng Gongchen (鄧拱辰), Xiu Wenying (秀文英), and Chen Huafu (陳華夫), occupy different positions across multiple liturgies. The prevalence of rank adjustments in Daofa Huiyuan suggests that many of its rites were substantially recomposed, a process that required the repeated reconfiguration of the general hierarchy.

Table 7. Rank shifts among generals.

	Fahai Yizhu		Daofa Huiyuan		Note
General	Ritual	Rank	Ritual	Rank	Rank lowered
Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯)	Arcane Instructions for Mobilizing Community Command Decrees (Ceyisheling Xuanmi 策役社令玄秘)	Chief	Secret Prayer Method of the Five Thunders from the Golden Palace of the Vast Heaven (Haotian Jinque Wulei Qidao Mi Fa 昊天金闕五雷祈禱秘法)	Deputy
	Secret Method of Xin, Commander of Thunder Forces (Leiting Xin Dudu Mi Fa 雷霆辛都督秘法)	Chief	Grand Thunder Register of the Three-Five Combined Dou Heaven from the Lofty Empyrean Realm (Gaoshang Jingxiao Sanwu Hunhe Doutian Dalei Langshu 高上景霄三五混合都天大雷琅書)	Deputy
	Secret Method of the Swift Flight of Six-One (Liuyi Feijie Mi Fa 六一飛捷秘法)	Chief	Secret Method of Marshal Zhao of the Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Xuantan Zhao Yuanshuai Mi Fa 正一玄壇趙元帥秘法)	Deputy
	Secret Method of the Fire-and-Thunder Envoy of Innate One Qi (Xiantian Yiqi Huolei Shizhe Mi Fa 先天一炁火雷使者秘法)	Chief	Great Ritual of the Dragon-Tiger Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Longhu Xuantan Dafa 正一龍虎玄壇大法)	Deputy
General	Ritual	Rank	Ritual	Rank	Rank increased
Zhao Gongming (趙公明)	Secret Method of the Fire Office of Taiyi (Taiyi Huofu Mi Fa 太乙火府秘法)	Deputy	Great Ritual of the Spiritually Swift Le-Ma of the Mysterious Altar (Shenjielema Xuantan Dafa 神捷勒馬玄壇大法)	Chief
	Great Ritual of the Southern Court of the Fiery Purgatory (Nanyuan Huoyu Dafa 南院火獄大法)	Deputy	Great Wish-Fulfilling Ritual of the Mysterious Altar (Xuantan Ruyi Dafa 玄壇如意大法)	Chief
		Deputy	Great Ritual of Sublime Cinnabar Radiance from Chongming of the Western Numinous Realm in the Pure Tenuity Tradition (Qingwei Xiling Chongming Danhua Dafa 清微西靈崇明丹華大法)	Chief
		Deputy	Great Ritual of the Five Thunders at the Mysterious Altar of the Sublime Dao of Harmonious Clarity from Shangqing Zhaoyuan (Shangqing Chonghe Miaodao Zhaoyuan Wulei Xuantan Dafa 上清冲和妙道昭元五雷玄壇大法)	Chief
Guan Yu (關羽)	Arcane Instructions for the Mobilization of Community Command Decrees (Ceyisheling Xuanmi 策役社令玄秘)	Deputy	Thunder Register of Rectification and Control from the Mysterious Realm of Peng (Pengxuan Shezheng Leishu 蓬玄攝正雷書)	Chief
		Deputy	Secret Method of Marshal Guan for Demon-Decapitation under the Earth Deities (Diqi Guomo Guan Yuanshuai Mi Fa 地祇馘魔關元帥秘法)	Chief
		Deputy	Secret Method of Marshal Guan of the Radiant Spirits of Fengdu (Fengdu Langling Guan Yuanshuai Mi Fa 酆都朗靈關元帥秘法)	Chief

summarizes the patterns of hierarchical mobility identified in this study.

Rank reversals among the generals can be categorized into two primary patterns: the demotion of a former chief marshal to a deputy role and the promotion of a deputy to the position of chief marshal. A notable case of demotion involves Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯). In Fahai Yizhu, he serves as the chief marshal in several dossiers, including Arcane Instructions for the Mobilization of Community Command Decrees (Ceyisheling Xuanmi 策役社令玄秘), Secret Method of Xin, Commander of Thunder Forces (Leiting Xin Dudu Mi Fa 雷霆辛都督秘法), and Secret Method of the Swift Flight of Six-One (Liuyi Feijie Mi Fa 六一飛捷秘法). In Daofa Huiyuan, however, Zhang Yuanbo (張元伯) appears only in subordinate roles. He is listed as a deputy marshal in such liturgies as the Secret Prayer Method of the Five Thunders from the Golden Palace of the Vast Heaven (Haotian Jinque Wulei Qidao Mi Fa 昊天金闕五雷祈禱秘法), the Grand Thunder Register of the Three-Five Combined Dou Heaven from the Lofty Empyrean Realm (Gaoshang Jingxiao Sanwu Hunhe Doutian Dalei Langshu 高上景霄三五混合都天大雷琅書), and the Secret Method of Marshal Zhao of the Mysterious Altar in the Orthodox Unity Tradition (Zhengyi Xuantan Zhao Yuanshuai Mi Fa 正一玄壇趙元帥秘法).

Although Yuanbo Zhang (張元伯), along with Deng Bowen (鄧伯溫) and Xin Zhongyi (辛忠義), comprises part of the renowned triad of Thunder Marshals (Leiji Sanyuanshuai 雷部三元帥), and would traditionally outrank Zhao Gongming (趙公明) within the thunder ritual, the Zhao-centered liturgies in Daofa Huiyuan consistently relegate him to a subordinate status. A plausible explanation for this demotion lies in his formal title, Flying Courier Envoy (Feijie Shizhe 飛捷使者). The term feijie (飛捷) connotes speed and agility, while shizhe (使者) is readily interpreted as messenger or talisman courier. It appears that later ritual compilers reinterpreted Zhang Yuanbo’s role as one focused on document transmission rather than military command, thereby diminishing his ritual prestige and reclassifying him within the lower ranks of the celestial hierarchy.

The promotion from deputy to chief marshal is most clearly exemplified by Zhao Gongming (趙公明). In Fahai Yizhu, he appears in subordinate roles, serving as a deputy in the Secret Method of the Fire Office of Taiyi (Taiyi Huofu Mi Fa 太乙火府秘法) and the Great Ritual of the Southern Court of the Fiery Purgatory (Nanyuan Huoyu Dafa 南院火獄大法). In Daofa Huiyuan, however, he is elevated to chief marshal in several rites, including the Great Ritual of the Spiritually Swift Le-Ma of the Mysterious Altar (Shenjielema Xuantan Dafa 神捷勒馬玄壇大法), the Great Wish-Fulfilling Ritual of the Mysterious Altar (Xuantan Ruyi Dafa 玄壇如意大法), and the Great Ritual of Sublime Cinnabar Radiance from Chongming of the Western Numinous Realm in the Pure Tenuity Tradition (Qingwei Xiling Chongming Danhua Dafa 清微西靈崇明丹華大法).

A similar trajectory is evident in the case of Guan Yu (關羽). In Fahai Yizhu, he is listed as a deputy in the Arcane Instructions for the Mobilization of Community Command Decrees (Ceyisheling Xuanmi 策役社令玄秘), but in Daofa Huiyuan he assumes the role of chief marshal in rites such as the Thunder Register of Rectification and Control from the Mysterious Realm of Peng (Pengxuan Shezheng Leishu 蓬玄攝正雷書), the Secret Method of Marshal Guan for Demon-Decapitation under the Earth Deities (Diqi Guomo Guan Yuanshuai Mi Fa 地祇馘魔關元帥秘法), and the Secret Method of Marshal Guan of the Radiant Spirits of Fengdu (Fengdu Langling Guan Yuanshuai Mi Fa 酆都朗靈關元帥秘法).

A statistical review suggests that most rank reversals are concentrated in the later fascicles of Daofa Huiyuan. In contrast, figures prominent in Fahai Yizhu—such as Song Wuji (宋無忌) and Liu Tianjun (劉天君)—appear only once or twice in Daofa Huiyuan, occupying marginal positions. This shift likely reflects the increasing emphasis on exorcistic liturgies in the later portions of the anthology. Earlier ritual corpora frequently include envoy figures such as the Manlei Envoys (Manlei Shizhe 蠻雷使者), Thunder Duke and Lightning Mother (Leigong Dianmu 雷公電母), and the Cloud Clerks (Yunli 雲吏), yet these entities are nearly absent from the later fascicles.

This divergence may also be attributable to differences between rituals associated with Lin Lingsu (林靈素) and Wang Wengqing (王文卿), whose teachings appear to dominate distinct portions of Daofa Huiyuan. The former is often linked with earlier celestial and talismanic rituals, while the latter is associated with more militant and exorcistic ritual structures.

5. Conclusions and Discussion

This study presents an exploratory integration of Daoist ritual sources with methods from digital humanities. Using Sea of Ritual (Fahai Yizhu 法海遺珠) and Collected Essentials of Daoist Methods (Daofa Huiyuan 道法會元) as the core corpora, this study constructs a network of rituals centered on the chief marshal of each ceremony and then traces the links among the individual rites. The methodology and initial findings show that the ceremonial network preserved in Daofa Huiyuan is far more intricate than the one in Fahai Yizhu. Evidence appears in four areas: the overall size of the two corpora, the number of generals per dossier, the frequency with which generals change rank, and their centrality values within the network. Together, these observations indicate a marked expansion of Daoist liturgical practice from the Southern Song, Jin, and Yuan periods into the early Ming. Fahai Yizhu functions as a concise handbook of minor rites, whereas Daofa Huiyuan displays a mature system of major rites that includes detailed genealogies, formal bureaucratic hierarchies, and fully articulated operative methods. This diachronic contrast constitutes the main contribution of this study.

Future work will involve the full digitization of the textual corpus and its integration with additional datasets, with the goal of producing a comprehensive map of late imperial Daoist rituals. A more detailed examination of ritual components such as registers, spells, talismans, and mnemonic formulae will clarify how specific techniques migrate and reappear across different rites. Many dossiers in Daofa Huiyuan appear to reconfigure or adapt liturgical elements drawn from earlier sources, reflecting a dynamic process of ritual recombination. The long-term objective is to construct a systematic and extensible account of Daoist liturgical complexes. To achieve this, related materials in the Daoist Canon of the Zhengtong Reign (Zhengtong Daozang 正統道藏) and the collection Zangwai Daoshu (Zangwaidaoshu 藏外道書) will be analyzed. These include texts such as the Secret Method of Divine Fierceness in the Pure Tenuity Tradition (Qingwei Shenlie Mi Fa 清微神烈秘法), the Secret Method of the Lunar Comet Thunder Lord of Taiyi (Taiyi Yuebo Leijun Mi Fa 太乙月孛雷君秘法), and the Great Ritual of General Zhu (Zhu Jiangjun Dafa 朱將軍大法), each of which preserves valuable clues regarding the diversity and transmission of ritual knowledge.

Social network analysis provides a rigorous set of metrics applicable at multiple levels, including entire networks, cohesive subgroups, and individual actors. Each level of analysis is grounded in a well-established theoretical framework. Applying these tools to patterns of connection strength and community structure among divine generals will offer a new interpretive dimension for the study of Daoist rituals, enriching our understanding of hierarchy, ritual authority, and structural variation across historical periods.