A New Home for New Immigrants? A Case Study of the Role of Soka Gakkai in the Integration of Japanese and Mainland Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Immigration Patterns in Hong Kong
3. Overview of SG
4. Research Methods
5. HKSGI: A Home for New Immigrants?
HKSGI does not have special preferences in recruiting or supporting new immigrants. Our organization sees every human being equally. And our members are encouraged to promote SG teachings to all people regardless of their ethnicity and social status.(Interview with Miss K, SG staff)
HKSGI is not providing support to migrant at all because it is a matter related to the laws and administration of a nation. And we, SG members do not specifically target new immigrants.(Interview with Mr. I, SG member)
We do not offer material or financial support to them [new immigrants]. We help them through religious means, such as chanting daimoku and sharing Buddhist teachings. Encouraging them to apply the teachings of SG to their life is the fundamental way to achieve real happiness instead of offering temporary monetary or material assistance.(Interview with Miss Y, SG staff)
5.1. A Strong Network among SG Branches and Members
In our gathering, members share their worries with others. These worries can sometimes be spiritual and sometimes practical, for example, being unemployed. After listening to their worries, we will offer our own opinions. Depending on the situations, some members may ask the person ‘what kind of job can you do?’ and even introduce a job to him.(Interview with Mr. O, SG staff)
5.2. Religious Supports
I am praying that, no matter how troubled the times may become, the Lotus Sutra and the ten demon daughters will protect all of you, praying as earnestly as though to produce fire from damp wood, or to obtain water from parched ground.
Employ the strategy of the Lotus Sutra before any other.
[The Lotus Sutra is] like a great physician who can change poison to medicine.
5.3. Ideology of Itaidōshin, Dai-Ga-Ting, and Ningenkakumei
We do not force our members to promote SG, like forcing them to convert ten people a day. No. We never do this. Instead, we hope our member would take the initiative to promote Buddhist teaching to people around them […] it is because one can only gain real happiness by experiencing the power of Buddhist teachings. And we are happy to let more people experience this mighty power.(Interview with Miss K, SG staff)
We treasure the dignity of all human lives. We do not see Mainlanders as trouble-makers. Actually, people of other origins are causing some kinds of social problems in Hong Kong. We do not have a bias towards Mainlanders. Everyone bears the seed to enlightenment according to Lotus Sutra.(Interview with Miss K, SG staff)
One day I was really stressed out because of money. Then one of my colleagues, who I didn‘t know she is a SG member before, came to comfort me and asked me to try chanting at home. Coincidently, I received a small rise in salary after I chanted and the financial problem was somehow solved. Although it might seem mysterious to some people, I regard it as a miracle. After a few months of chanting and learning from my SG colleague, I found this religion can give me power and confidence, and I eventually became a member in 2003. My husband also tried chanting after seeing the positive changes in my life. The bad-tempered man is gradually becoming gentler. Our family is also filled with more “positive power”. I understand that everything we have faced in the past, are facing now, or will face in the future, including happiness, sadness, difficulties, or success, is related to our shukumei (past fates). It is only through chanting, our fates can be transformed and life improved.(Interview with Mrs. L, SG member)
If they [new immigrants] face difficulties in a new environment, it doesn’t mean that the problems will disappear when they return to their own countries; other problems may arise instead. It is only through practicing Buddhist teachings, one can transform their past fate and live a happy life.(Interview with Miss K, SG staff)
I did have some interest in traditional Buddhism and Taoism, but they are quite detached from the society and social life. It is not so good for a new-migrant like me to further isolate myself from the society…Some of my housewives friends took me to a local Church. The people there were very nice and I could make friends inside the organization…I admit that Christianity is a good religion but I am not convinced by the idea that human beings can only achieve salvation in the afterlife… One day, I was invited by a friend to a Buddhist seminar organized by SG. I wasn’t very interested at first and wanted to reject her. But my friend said “this seminar welcomes non-believers, and this religion is quite different from traditional Buddhism. So please come with me and try to experience something different”. In fact, the meeting was not very different from Christian fellowship; people talked about how their lives are improved by chanting and so on. But what caught my attention is the confidence and happy faces shown by the members. When I knew that people can indeed achieve enlightenment in this life through human revolution, I realized that this religion may be the religion that I have been seeking.(Interview with Mrs. C, SG member)
6. Problems Facing SG Members
7. Conclusions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Anthias, Floya, Maria Kontos, and Mirjana Morokvasić, eds. 2013. Paradoxes of Integration: Female Migrants in Europe. Dordrecht: Springer. [Google Scholar]
- Asian Development Bank. 2006. Workers’ Remittance Flow in Southeast Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank. [Google Scholar]
- Bauhinia Magazine. 2007. Special edition vol. 2. Hong Kong: Thousand Wisdom Ltd.
- Baumann, Martin, and Kurt Salentin. 2006. Migrant Religiousness and Social Incorporation: Tamil Hindus from Sri Lanka in Germany. Journal of Contemporary Religion 21: 297–323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bonifacio, Glenda Tibe, and Vivienne S. M. Angeles, eds. 2010. Gender, Religion, and Migration: Pathways of Integration. Lanham: Lexington Books. [Google Scholar]
- Bouma, Gary, and Andrew Singleton. 2004. A Comparative Study of the Successful Management of Religious Diversity: Melbourne and Hong Kong. International Sociology 19: 5–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Casanova, José. 1980. Public Religions in the Modern World. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]
- Casanova, José. 2007. Immigration and the New Religious Pluralism: A European Union/United States Comparison. In Democracy and the New Religious Pluralism. Edited by Thomas Banchoff. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 59–84. [Google Scholar]
- Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong. 2016. 2016 Population By-census. Available online: https://www.bycensus2016.gov.hk/en/ (accessed on 11 September 2018).
- Chan, Hoiman, and Rance Pui Leung Lee. 1995. Hong Kong Families: At the Crossroads of Modernism and Traditionalism. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 26: 83–99. [Google Scholar]
- Constable, Nicole. 2010. Telling Tales of Migrant Workers in Hong Kong: Transformations of Faith, Life Scripts, and Activism. Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 11: 311–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cruz, Gemma Tulud. 2010. It Cuts Both Ways: Religion and Filipina Domestic Workers in Hong Kong. In Gender, Religion, and Migration: Pathways of Integration. Edited by Glenda Tibe Bonifacio and Vivienne S. M. Angeles. Lanham: Lexington Books, pp. 17–36. [Google Scholar]
- Dawson, Lorne. 1998. Cults in Context: Readings in the Study of New Religious Movements. Toronto: Canadian Scholars’ Press. [Google Scholar]
- Dobbelaere, Karel. 2001. Soka Gakkai: From Lay Movement to Religion. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. [Google Scholar]
- Finke, Roger, and Rodney Stark. 1992. The Churching of America, 1776–1990: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Gordon, Milton Myron. 1964. Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins. New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Gordon, Andrew. 2009. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Hammond, Phillip, and David Machacek. 1999. Soka Gakkai in America: Accommodation and Conversion. New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Hardacre, Helen. 1986. Kurozumikyo and the New Religions of Japan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Hong Kong Soka Gakkai International (HKSGI). 2011. Brochure of HKSGI Cultural Festival 2011. Hong Kong: HKSGI. [Google Scholar]
- Hong Kong Government. 2017. Hong Kong Year Book 2017. Available online: https://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2017/en/ (accessed on 11 September 2018).
- Iannaccone, Laurence Robert. 1998. Introduction to the Economics of Religion. Journal of Economic Literature XXXVI: 1465–96. [Google Scholar]
- Ikeda, Daisaku. 1981–1987. A Lasting Peace: Collected Addresses of Daisaku Ikeda. New York: Weatherhill.
- Ikeda, Daisaku. 1995–2018. The New Human Revolution. Santa Monica: World Tribune Press, vol. 1–30.
- Ikeda, Daisaku. 2006. 2006: Peace Proposal. A New Era of the People: Forging a Global Network of Robust Individuals. Available online: http://www.daisakuikeda.org/assets/files/pp2006.pdf (accessed on 11 September 2018).
- Ikeda, Daisaku. 2009. Embracing the Future. Hong Kong: Bauhinia Publication. [Google Scholar]
- Jin, Yong, and Daisaku Ikeda. 1998. Looking for a Bright Century. Hong Kong: Ming Ho Publications Corporation Limited. (In Chinese) [Google Scholar]
- Kirimura, Yasuji. 1980. The Life of Nichiren Daishonin. Tokyo: Nichiren Shoshu International Center. [Google Scholar]
- Knowles, Caroline, and Douglas Harper. 2009. Hong Kong: Migrant Lives, Landscapes, and Journeys. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar]
- Law, Kam-Yee, and Kim-Ming Lee. 2006. Citizenship, Economy and Social Exclusion of Mainland Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong. Journal of Contemporary Asia 36: 217–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Kon Sau. 2009. A Blue Fly, If It Clings to the Tail of a Thoroughbred Horse, Can Travel Ten Thousand Miles. In Cherry Blossom Memories: CUHK Alumni in Japan. Edited by CUHK Alumni Association in Japan. Hong Kong: Comos Books, pp. 182–92. [Google Scholar]
- Lung, W. Y. 2011. Defeat the 311 Disaster with the Strategy of the Lotus Sutra. New Century Monthly 215: 22–23. [Google Scholar]
- Machacek, David, and Bryan Wilson. 2000. Global Citizens: the Soka Gakkai Buddhist Movement in the World. New York: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 1988. The History and Theology of Soka Gakkai: A Japanese New Religion. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 1994. The Soka Gakkai Revolution. Lanham: University Press of America. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 1996. The Lotus and the Maple Leaf: The Soka Gakkai Buddhist Movement in Canada. New York: University Press of America. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 1997. The Soka Gakkai Buddhist Movement in Quebec: The Lotus and the Fleur De Lys (Canadian Studies). Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 2000. The Expansion of Soka Gakkai into Southeast Asia. In Global Citizens: The Soka Gakkai Buddhist Movement in the World. Edited by David W. Machacek and Bryan R. Wilson. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 402–29. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 2001. The International Expansion of a Modern Buddhist Movement: The Soka Gakkai in Southeast Asia and Australia. Lanham: University Press of America. [Google Scholar]
- Metraux, Daniel Alfred. 2010. How Soka Gakkai Became a Global Buddhist Movement: The Internationalization of a Japanese Religion. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. [Google Scholar]
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs Japan. 2018. Annual Report of Statistics on Japanese Nationals Overseas 2017. Available online: https://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/files/000368754.pdf (accessed on 11 September 2018).
- Ng, Ka Shing. 2012. The Development of Soka Gakkai in Hong Kong. Journal of the Graduate School of Letters 7: 77–85. [Google Scholar]
- Nichiren. 2003. The Writings of Nichiren Daishonin. Edited and translated by The Gosho Translation Committee. Tokyo: Soka Gakkai. [Google Scholar]
- Nishihara, Kentaro. 2008. Soka kyoiku no genryu: makiguchi tsunesaburo. (The Origin of Soka Education: Makiguchi Tsunesaburo). Tokyo: Ushio Suppansha. [Google Scholar]
- Piore, Michael. 1979. Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor in Industrial Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Ravenstein, Ernst Georg. 1885. The Laws of Migration. Journal of the Statistical Society of London 48: 167–235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Research Office of the Legislative Council Secretariat. 2018. Livelihood of New Arrivals from the Mainland. Available online: https://www.legco.gov.hk/research-publications/english/1718issh18-livelihood-of-new-arrivals-from-the-mainland-20180323-e.pdf (accessed on 11 September 2018).
- Salaff, Janet, Siu-Lun Wong, and Arent Greve. 2010. Hong Kong Movers and Stayers: Narratives of Family Migration. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. [Google Scholar]
- Sassen, Saskia. 1988. The Mobility of Labor and Capital: A Study in International Investment and Labor Flow. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Shen, Jianfa, and Erbiao Dai. 2006. Population Growth, Fertility Decline, and Ageing in Hong Kong: The Perceived and Real Demographic Effects of Migration. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies. [Google Scholar]
- Sjaastad, Larry. 1962. The Costs and Returns of Human Migration. Journal of Political Economy 70: 80–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, Timothy. 1978. Religion and ethnicity in America. American Historical Review 83: 1155–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Soka Gakkai International. 2018. Human Revolution. Official Homepage. Available online: https://www.sgi.org/about-us/buddhist-concepts/human-revolution.html (accessed on 12 September 2018).
- Sussman, Nan. 2010. Return Migration and Identity: A Global Phenomenon, A Hong Kong Case. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Todaro, Michael. 1969. A Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less Developing Countries. American Economic Review 59: 138–48. [Google Scholar]
- Tweed, Thomas. 2006. Crossing and Dwelling: A Theory of Religion. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Wilson, Bryan, and Karel Dobbelaere. 1994. A Time to Chant: The Soka Gakkai. Buddhists in Britain. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [Google Scholar]
- Wuthnow, Robert, and Conrad Hackett. 2003. The Social Integration of Practitioners of Non-Western Religions in the United States. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 42: 651–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Fenggang. 1999. Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Yang, Fenggang. 2005. Lost in the Market, Saved at McDonald’s: Conversion to Christianity in Urban China. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 44: 423–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yano, Jyunya, and Hitomi Shimada. 2010. Soka Gakkai: mou hitotsu no nihon. (Soka Gakkai: One More Japan). Tokyo: Koudansha. (In Japanese) [Google Scholar]
1 | In 2016, Hong Kong had a total population of 7,336,585, of which 92% were ethnic Chinese and 8.0% ethnic minorities. The latter comprised Filipinos (2.5%), Indonesians (2.1%), White (0.8%), Indians (0.5%), Nepalese (0.3%), Pakistanis (0.2%), Thais (0.1%), Japanese (0.1%), Other Asian (0.3%) and Others (0.9%) (2016 Population By-census, Census and Statistics Department of Hong Kong 2016). |
2 | According to Helen Hardacre, “new religions” (shinko shukyo) appeared around 1800 in Japan. They have a great variety of doctrines, but “share a unity of aspiration and worldview significantly different from those of secular society and from the so-called established religions”. They emphasize “this-worldly-benefits” by improving spiritual health, family relationships, and material prosperity. The founders of these religions are always charismatic individuals who attract followers through faith healing (see Hardacre (1986)). |
3 | Ravenstein’s (1885) laws of migration (economic opportunity), Sjaastad (1962) and Todaro’s (1969) neoclassical economic theories (global supply and demand of labor), Piore’s (1979) segmented labor-market theory (immigrants to fill secondary market), and Sassen’s (1988) world-systems theory (migration as a by-product of capitalism) offer some explanations to the large amount of foreign workers in Hong Kong. |
4 | According to the Asian Development Bank (2006), Filipino and Indonesian migrants living and working in Hong Kong transact an average of US$300 each time with an annual average number of transactions of 11 and 15, respectively. |
5 | The original Japanese word dekasegi (出稼ぎ) means “working away from home”. |
6 | “One way-Permit” is a document issued by the People’s Republic of China allowing residents of mainland China to leave the mainland for permanent residence in Hong Kong. Before 1995, 75 permits were issued on a daily basis. The number has since increased to 150. |
7 | New Chinese migrants had often been associated with the image of being poor and uneducated. In recent years, however, the number of Chinese migrants who belong to the well-off class is increasing. Some of them make investments in real estate and start businesses in Hong Kong. |
8 | While the term has been widely used in anti-Chinese movements in Hong Kong, many criticized it for being discriminative and fueling hatred and intolerance. |
9 | According to another Japanese informant, there are actually many ways to transfer membership form one branch to another, depending on different regions and circumstances. In his case, he had to return his SG membership card to the current branch, which was then sent to the new branch on behalf of him. Regardless of the methods, the important idea behind this is that new members would be able to resume their religious and social life in a new place as soon as possible. |
10 | There are also a few ethnic Chinese who are the spouses of the Japanese members in the 11th headquarters. |
11 | In the end of the American occupation of Japan in the 1950s, some American soldiers returned to the US with their Japanese wives. Some of these wives were SG believers and thus they brought their religion to the US. However, these Japanese wives were struggling in the new host country due to language barriers and cultural shocks. On 5 October 1960, Ikeda visited North America and encouraged these frustrated SG members to respond to the challenges positively by doing three specific things: to get a green card, to learn how to drive, and to learn English well. He believed that only by achieving these they could settle well in America. In this case, Ikeda’s advice is practical and strategically targeting the difficulties facing the Japanese migrants. What is more important is also the symbolic meaning of Ikeda’s visit. Another story happened in France in which a Japanese member was frustrated because he could not afford to buy his own house. Ikeda asked him to reflect on his intention of buying a house: whether it is just for his own happiness or for the spread of Buddhist teachings (as a meeting place for members). Significantly inspirited by Ikeda’s words, the member recognized that his goal of buying a house is for the latter purpose and he worked harder and finally realized this ultimate objective. |
12 | “We can change our own lives and the world for the better. While the role of institutions or governments is important, change that starts with each person’s life is seen as the surest way to tackle the problems facing the world in the 21st century. Many people feel hopeless about these issues, but SGI stresses that people have the power to change their circumstances, and its public education and outreach projects aim to inspire people and equip them with information that they can use to make a difference in their communities” (see Soka Gakkai International 2018). |
13 | From 2000 to 2007, about twenty people died in six suicides in this city. For instance, in April 2004, a man attempted suicide after killing his wife, a Mainland Chinese migrant, and two children in a quarrel. In November 2007, a mother, also a Mainland Chinese migrant, tied her nine-year-old son and eleven-year-old daughter up and dropped them from the twenty-fourth floor. The mother, who committed suicide afterward, and the two children were found dead. |
14 | In addition, HKSGI refrains from proselytizing Mainland Chinese people who do not have a Hong Kong Identification Card (HKID), since it violates the verbal agreement Ikeda made with Zhou Enlai that SG would enter China only if it is permitted by the government and the people of China “welcome” them. |
© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Ng, K.S. A New Home for New Immigrants? A Case Study of the Role of Soka Gakkai in the Integration of Japanese and Mainland Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong. Religions 2018, 9, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9110336
Ng KS. A New Home for New Immigrants? A Case Study of the Role of Soka Gakkai in the Integration of Japanese and Mainland Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong. Religions. 2018; 9(11):336. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9110336
Chicago/Turabian StyleNg, Ka Shing. 2018. "A New Home for New Immigrants? A Case Study of the Role of Soka Gakkai in the Integration of Japanese and Mainland Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong" Religions 9, no. 11: 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9110336
APA StyleNg, K. S. (2018). A New Home for New Immigrants? A Case Study of the Role of Soka Gakkai in the Integration of Japanese and Mainland Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong. Religions, 9(11), 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel9110336