Ensemble Deep Learning Models for Heart Disease Classification: A Case Study from Mexico
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Related Work
3. Preliminaries
3.1. Unidirectional Neural Network
3.2. Bidirectional Recurrent Neural Network
3.3. Data Balancing Methods
3.4. Features Selection Methods
3.4.1. Model-Based Selection Method
3.4.2. Recursive Feature Elimination Method
4. Methodology
4.1. Classification Models
4.2. Ensemble-Learning Framework
5. Experimental Results
5.1. Dataset
5.2. Evaluation Metrics
5.3. Hyperparameters Setting
5.3.1. Number of Epochs
5.3.2. Dropout Rate
5.3.3. Optimizer
5.3.4. Learning Rate
5.4. Comparative Experiments Results
5.4.1. Classification Performance of the Single Model
5.4.2. Comparison of the Classification Performance for Different Subsets
5.4.3. Comparison of the Classification Performance for Different Models
6. Discussion and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Index | Variables | Description |
1 | Age | |
2 | Gender Female | |
3 | Gender Male | |
4 | TA_sist | Systolic Blood Pressure |
5 | TA_dist | Diastolic Blood Pressure |
6 | FC | Heart Rate |
7 | Col | cholesterol |
8 | LDL | lipoproteins- bad |
9 | HDL | high density lipoprotein |
10 | TG | Triglycerides |
11 | HVI | Left ventricular hypertrophy |
12 | GL | Glycemic load (day value) |
13 | Peso | |
14 | HAS | Systolic Arterial Hypertension |
15 | HAS_REACTIVA | |
16 | HAS_limitrofe | |
17 | HAScFondo | |
18 | PRE-HAS | |
19 | Dislipidemia | It is the presence of abnormal elevation of fat concentration in the blood (cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL and LDL cholesterol). |
20 | Dislipidemia_aterogenica | is a triad of lipoprotein alterations characterized by elevated triglycerides (<150 mg/dL), low HDL cholesterol (<40 mg/dL in men and <50 mg/dL in women) and a greater presence of small LDL particles and dense that is associated with an elevated cardiovascular risk |
21 | Dislipidemia_hipercolesterolemia | Increases in triglyceride concentrations |
22 | Dislipidemia_mixta | is a lipid and lipoprotein alteration associated with elevated cardiovascular risk and characterized by the joint presence of hypercholesterolemia and hypertriglyceridemia, with elevations of cholesterol linked to very low density lipoproteins (cVLDL) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc) |
23 | DM2 | Diabetes_melitus 2 |
24 | Diabetes_melitus | |
25 | Pre-Diabetes | |
26 | ObesidadI | |
27 | ObesidadII | |
28 | ObesidadIII | |
29 | CARDIOANGIOESCLEROSIS | It consists of an increase in collagen fibers and acid mucopolysaccharides and a decrease in elastic and smooth muscle fibers. These alterations produce an arterial ectasia with loss of elasticity, as can be seen in the aorta of the elderly. |
30 | HIPOTIROIDISMO | occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone to meet the body’s needs |
31 | HIPOTIROIDISMO_SUBCLINICO | it is an alteration in the function of the thyroid gland that has few symptoms or very nonspecific and that is detected in a blood test when high TSH values (above the reference range of the laboratory) but with a normal free T4. |
32 | BRADICARDIA | it supposes the emission, on the part of the sinus node, of less than 60 ppm (pulsations per minute), or its lack of total function, in which case the frequency that takes control is that of the atrioventricular nodule, of about 45–55 ppm, approximately. |
33 | BRADICARDIA_EXTREMA | coronary heart disease |
34 | TAQUIARRITMIA | (heart rate> 100 bpm) occurring ’above’ the ventricles, ie in the atria or atrioventricular node |
35 | TAQUICARDIA_COMPENSADORA | |
36 | TAQUICARDIA_REFLEJA_REACTIVA | |
37 | TAQUICARDIA_SAPRAVENTRICULAR | they are arrhythmias with a heart rate higher than 100 bpm that originate in the atria or atrioventricular node |
38 | TAQUICARDIA_SINUSAL | It consists of a heart rhythm originated and driven normally, but with a heart rate higher than usual. It is physiological and occurs due to anxiety, exercise, anemia, alcohol consumption, heart failure or nicotine. In general, it does not require specific treatment, but the cause must be acted upon: quitting tobacco, correcting anemia, etc. |
39 | TAQUICARDIA_SINUSAL_REACTIVA | |
40 | TSVP | Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia |
41 | ANGOR_PECTORIS | is a pain and disease of the coronary arteries, usually of an oppressive nature, located in the retrosternal area, caused by insufficient blood supply (oxygen) to the cells of the heart muscle. |
42 | INSUFICIENCIA TRICUSPIDEA | Its most frequent cause is dilatation of the right ventricle. It does not usually produce signs or symptoms, although severe tricuspid regurgitation can cause cervical pulsations, a holosystolic murmur, and heart failure induced by right ventricular dysfunction or atrial fibrillation. |
43 | INSUFICIENCIA_MITRAL | Also known as mitral regurgitation, it is a disorder of the mitral valve of the heart, characterized by reflux of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium during systole. |
44 | INSUFICIENCIA_VENOSA_LINFATICA | It is a condition in which the veins have problems returning blood from the legs to the heart. |
45 | INSUFICIENCIA_VENOSA_PERIFERICA | Is a disease in which the venous return is difficult, especially in standing, and in which the venous blood flows back in the opposite direction to the normal, that is, in the case of the lower limbs, it circulates from the deep venous system to the superficial one. |
46 | FA_PAROXISTICA | It is the most frequent sustained cardiac arrhythmia. |
47 | HIPOTENSION_ORTOSTATICA | It is defined as the inability of the body to regulate blood pressure quickly. It is produced by sudden changes in body position (from lying down to standing). It usually lasts a few seconds or minutes and can cause fainting. |
48 | HIPOTENSION_POSTURAL | It is a form of low blood pressure that occurs when you stand up after sitting or lying down. Orthostatic hypotension can make you feel dizzy or dazed, and you can even faint |
49 | ANSIEDAD | Mental state characterized by great restlessness, intense excitement and extreme insecurity. |
50 | SX_METABOLICO | Is a group of conditions that put you at risk of developing heart disease and type 2 diabetes? These are High blood pressure. Glucose (a type of sugar) high in the blood |
51 | ANGIODISPLASIA_INTESTINAL | It is a small malformation that causes dilation and vascular fragility of the colon, resulting in an intermittent loss of blood from the intestinal tract. The lesions are often multiple and often involve the blind or the colonascent, although it can occur in other areas. |
52 | ANEMIA | A syndrome that is characterized by an abnormal decrease in the number or size of red blood cells in your blood or in your hemoglobin level |
53 | ANEMIA_CRONICA | is a type of anemia found in people with certain long-term (chronic) conditions that involve inflammation. |
54 | SOPLO | The heart has valves that close with each heartbeat, which causes the blood to flow in only one direction. The valves are located between the chambers. The murmurs can happen for many reasons, for example: When a valve does not close well, and the blood is returned (regurgitation) |
55 | HIPERURICEMIA | Increase in the amount of uric acid in the blood |
56 | CIC | Chronic ischemic heart disease |
57 | IRC | Chronic renal insufficiency |
58 | DISFUNCION_SISTOLICA | It refers to a clinical syndrome characterized by signs and / or symptoms of heart failure in the context of a structural heart disease that causes a decrease in the contractile function of the left ventricle |
59 | ARRITMIA | It is a disorder of the heart rate (pulse) or heart rate. The heart may beat too fast (tachycardia), too slow (bradycardia), or irregularly |
60 | ARRITMIA_CARDIACA | |
61 | ARRITMIA_SINUSAL | Is the variation of the heart rate of the sinus node with the respiratory cycle? |
62 | ARRITMIA_VENTRICULAR | Is a heart rhythm disorder (arrhythmia) caused by abnormal electrical signals in the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles)? |
63 | CALCIFICACION_CORONARIA | A passive and degenerative process that frequently occurred with advanced age, atherosclerosis, several metabolic alterations (such as diabetes mellitus and final stages of kidney disease), and in rare genetic diseases. |
64 | PROSTATISMO | when it causes urinary retention |
65 | UROPATIA_OBSTRUCTIVA | It occurs when urine cannot be drained through the urinary tract. The urine is returned to the kidney and causes it to swell. This condition is known as hydronephrosis. Obstructive uropathy can affect one or both kidneys |
66 | TROMBOFLEBITIS | It is an inflammatory process that causes blood clots to form that produce blockages in one or more veins, in general, in the legs. The affected vein may be near the surface of the skin (thrombophlebitis superficial) or at a deep level of a muscle (deep vein thrombosis). |
67 | TROMBOSIS | Colloquially called blood clot, it is the final product of the blood coagulation stage in hemostasis. There are two components in a thrombus: aggregate platelets and red blood cells that form a plug, and a mesh of reticulated fibrin protein |
68 | ATEROMATOSIS | It is a multifactorial inflammatory process that affects the wall of the arteries, has a long clinical evolution, and manifests itself in highly evolved stages causing a cardiovascular event |
69 | ESTEATOSIS | fatty liver disease |
70 | FIBROSIS_PULMONAR | Is a condition in which the tissue in the lungs heals and, therefore, becomes thick and hard. This causes difficulties when breathing and it is possible that the blood does not receive enough oxygen |
71 | COLITIS | is an inflammatory bowel disease that causes lasting inflammation and ulcers (sores) in the digestive tract |
72 | HIPERCOLESTEROLEMIA | Increase in the normal amount of cholesterol in the blood |
73 | FARINGOAMIGDALITIS | Is the acute infection of the pharynx or the palatine tonsils? Symptoms may include angina, dysphagia, cervical lymphadenopathy, and fever. The diagnosis is clinical, complemented by culture or rapid antigenic testing. |
74 | DIVERTICULAR | It is a condition that occurs when small bags or sacs are formed that push outward through the weak points in the wall of your colon. Diverticulosis can also cause problems such as diverticular bleeding and diverticulitis. |
75 | CEFALEA_CRONICA | headache |
76 | CEFALE_VASOMOTORA | tension headache |
77 | ANEURISMA_RENAL | The etiology is usually related to fibromuscular dysplasia, arteriosclerosis of the renal artery, which may be congenital, associated with arteritis, or with a traumatic history. |
78 | LITIASIS_RENAL | |
79 | ALZHEIMER | |
80 | EPOC | Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the lungs that obstructs the flow of air from the lungs. Symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, mucus production (sputum) and whistling when breathing. |
81 | ACALASIA_ESOFAGICA | This is called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). Normally, this muscle relaxes when you swallow to let food pass into the stomach. In people with achalasia, this muscle ring does not relax so well. In addition, the normal muscular activity of the esophagus (peristalsis) is reduced. |
82 | CANDIDIASIS_ESOFAGICA | It refers to the infection of the oral mucosa. Candida is responsible for the majority of oral fungal infections and C. albicans is the main causative species of infection. The infection can spread to the esophagus causing esophageal candidiasis. |
83 | RAYNAUD | Is a rare disorder of the blood vessels that usually affects the fingers and toes? |
84 | ORTOSTATISMO | It is a drop in blood pressure that comes because of a person having been standing for a long time or when standing after sitting or lying down. |
85 | HEPATITIS_C | |
86 | CREST | It is a limited form of scleroderma. In this modality of the entity, it is typical that Raynaud’s syndrome precedes the presentation of the rest of the disease symptoms in years. |
87 | GLAUCOMA | is an eye disease that steals your vision gradually |
88 | DISFUNCION_ERECTIL | |
89 | HIPPERPARATIROIDISMO | is an alteration that consists of the parathyroid glands secreting a greater amount of parathyroid hormone, regulator of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus in the blood and bone |
90 | RESEQUEDAD_VAGINAL | |
91 | TABAQUISMO_CRONICO | |
92 | STENT | (coronary artery stent) is a small tube of metal mesh that expands inside a heart artery |
93 | FA_CRONICA | chronic arterial frequency |
94 | ICVV | diastolic heart failure |
95 | AORTA_BIVALVA | It regulates the flow of blood from the heart to the aorta. The aorta is the largest blood vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood to the heart |
96 | AASV | extracorporeal, more invasive or implantable ventricular assist devices (AAV)—AASVs divert the patient’s circulation so that they completely discharge the ventricle (blood is taken from the atrium or directly from the injured ventricle and recast in the aorta or AP) |
97 | ITG | Impaired glucose tolerance. |
98 | LES | Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an inflammatory disease |
99 | Aldactone_25 | Drugs |
100 | Almetec_tri | |
101 | Aspirina_100 | |
102 | Aspirina_81 | |
103 | AspirinaInf | |
104 | Atacand_8mg | |
105 | Atacand_16mg | |
106 | Angiotrofin_30mg | |
107 | Atorvastatina_41 | |
108 | Atozet_10 | |
109 | Atozet_40 | |
110 | Biconcor_6 | |
111 | Centrum_performance | |
112 | Co-Enzyme_401 | |
113 | Concor_11 | |
114 | CONCOR_2.6 | |
115 | Cordarone_201 | |
116 | Crestor_41 | |
117 | Daflon_501 | |
118 | Diltiazem_121 | |
119 | DUOALMETEC_41 | |
120 | Elantan_21 | |
121 | Elicuis_6 | |
122 | Espironolactona_26 | |
123 | Eutirox_100 | |
124 | Eutirox_75 | |
125 | HALCION_0.26 | |
126 | Insulina_tresiba | |
127 | Jardianz_6 | |
128 | Jardianz_Duo | |
129 | Carnitine_501 | |
130 | Lanoxin_0.26 | |
131 | Lipitor_81 | |
132 | Metformina_500 | |
133 | Metformina_850 | |
134 | Miccil_2 | |
135 | Norfenon_301 | |
136 | Omega_3.1001 | |
137 | Procorolan_6 | |
138 | Telmisartan_81 | |
139 | Trulicity_1.6 | |
140 | Trulicity_2.6 | |
141 | VYTORIN_11 |
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Type 1 | CARDIOPATIA_HIPERTENSIVA (Hypertensive Heart disease) | It refers to heart problems that occur due to high blood pressure that remain for a long time. |
Type 2 | CARDIOPATIA_ISQUEMICA (Ischemic Heart disease) | It is also called “coronary artery disease” and “coronary heart disease”; the term applies to cardiac problems caused by narrowed heart arteries. |
Type 3 | CARDIOPATIA_MIXTA (Mixed Heart disease) | It is known as the combined systolic and diastolic heart failure, which refers to the first presentation of mixed connective tissue disease. |
Type 4 | CARDIOPATIA_VALVULAR (Valvular Heart disease) | It occurs mainly in the elderly and is characterized by a narrowing of the aortic valve opening which increases resistance to blood flow. |
Gender | Gender Female | Gender Male |
---|---|---|
Female | 1 | 0 |
Male | 0 | 1 |
Age | Age Category | Age Category Code |
---|---|---|
<20 | 0–20 | 1 |
>20 and <40 | 20–40 | 2 |
>40 and <60 | 40–60 | 3 |
>60 and <80 | 60–80 | 4 |
>80 | 80–100 | 5 |
Dataset | Size | Method | Features | Features Index |
---|---|---|---|---|
Initial Dataset | 800 | — | 141 | All |
Original Dataset | 798 | Cleaned with full features | 141 | All |
Subset 1 | 798 | Model-Based Selection (Random Forest Classifier) | 60 | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 38, 39, 44, 47, 48, 50, 54, 57, 60, 62, 69, 70, 74, 79, 89, 90, 97, 99, 100, 101, 102, 108, 115, 116, 122, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 |
Subset 2 | 798 | Recursive Feature Elimination (RFE) | 98 | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 129, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139 |
Subset 3 | 798 | 39 | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 16, 20, 25, 29, 30, 31, 38, 39, 47, 48, 50, 54, 55, 62, 89, 91, 97, 99, 107, 114, 116, 122, 129, 131, 136, 137, 138, 139 |
True Class 0 | True Class 1 | |
---|---|---|
Predicted Class 0 | tp (true positive) | fp (false positive) |
Predicted Class 1 | fn (false negative) | tn (true negative) |
Target | Models | P | R | F1 | ACC | AUC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Target 1 | MLP | 0.81 | 0.57 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.59 |
CNN | 0.39 | 0.62 | 0.48 | 0.62 | 0.62 | |
LSTM | 0.86 | 0.67 | 0.74 | 0.67 | 0.65 | |
GRU | 0.82 | 0.62 | 0.70 | 0.62 | 0.71 | |
BiLSTM | 0.82 | 0.67 | 0.74 | 0.67 | 0.74 | |
BiGRU | 0.76 | 0.87 | 0.81 | 0.87 | 0.79 | |
Target 2 | MLP | 0.71 | 0.62 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 0.67 |
CNN | 0.80 | 0.69 | 0.72 | 0.69 | 0.75 | |
LSTM | 0.81 | 0.76 | 0.78 | 0.76 | 0.77 | |
GRU | 0.62 | 0.79 | 0.69 | 0.79 | 0.79 | |
BiLSTM | 0.70 | 0.84 | 0.76 | 0.84 | 0.81 | |
BiGRU | 0.82 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.81 | 0.82 | |
Target 3 | MLP | 0.95 | 0.62 | 0.93 | 0.62 | 0.63 |
CNN | 0.47 | 0.69 | 0.56 | 0.69 | 0.67 | |
LSTM | 0.88 | 0.74 | 0.79 | 0.74 | 0.79 | |
GRU | 0.94 | 0.75 | 0.83 | 0.75 | 0.82 | |
BiLSTM | 0.96 | 0.8 | 0.87 | 0.8 | 0.88 | |
BiGRU | 0.96 | 0.79 | 0.86 | 0.79 | 0.86 | |
Target 4 | MLP | 0.96 | 0.72 | 0.8 | 0.72 | 0.71 |
CNN | 0.85 | 0.75 | 0.78 | 0.75 | 0.78 | |
LSTM | 0.85 | 0.77 | 0.8 | 0.77 | 0.74 | |
GRU | 0.83 | 0.8 | 0.81 | 0.8 | 0.82 | |
BiLSTM | 0.80 | 0.81 | 0.80 | 0.81 | 0.80 | |
BiGRU | 0.76 | 0.87 | 0.82 | 0.87 | 0.85 |
Target | Dataset | P | R | F1 | ACC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Target 1 | Original Dataset | 0.88 | 0.91 | 0.89 | 0.90 |
Subset 1 | 0.99 | 0.96 | 0.98 | 0.98 | |
Subset 2 | 0.93 | 0.96 | 0.95 | 0.94 | |
Subset 3 | 0.90 | 0.99 | 0.95 | 0.94 | |
Target 2 | Original Dataset | 0.96 | 0.83 | 0.89 | 0.88 |
Subset 1 | 0.96 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.94 | |
Subset 2 | 0.95 | 0.88 | 0.91 | 0.92 | |
Subset 3 | 0.92 | 0.96 | 0.94 | 0.94 | |
Target 3 | Original Dataset | 0.90 | 0.77 | 0.87 | 0.88 |
Subset 1 | 0.99 | 0.84 | 0.91 | 0.92 | |
Subset 2 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 0.90 | 0.92 | |
Subset 3 | 0.99 | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.91 | |
Target 4 | Original Dataset | 0.70 | 0.87 | 0.77 | 0.85 |
Subset 1 | 0.99 | 0.88 | 0.93 | 0.92 | |
Subset 2 | 0.93 | 0.88 | 0.90 | 0.88 | |
Subset 3 | 0.85 | 0.99 | 0.91 | 0.88 |
Target | Models | P | R | F1 | ACC | AUC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Target 1 | Baseline: SVM | 0.64 | 0.56 | 0.57 | 0.62 | 0.50 |
CNN + LSTM | 0.88 | 0.91 | 0.89 | 0.90 | 0.97 | |
CNN + GRU | 0.84 | 0.84 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.93 | |
MLP + LSTM | 0.84 | 0.87 | 0.85 | 0.87 | 0.60 | |
MLP + GRU | 0.92 | 0.85 | 0.88 | 0.89 | 0.76 | |
CNN + BiLSTM | 0.90 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.97 | |
CNN + BiGRU | 0.92 | 0.85 | 0.88 | 0.89 | 0.97 | |
Target 2 | Baseline: SVM | 0.51 | 0.90 | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.50 |
CNN + LSTM | 0.96 | 0.83 | 0.89 | 0.88 | 0.89 | |
CNN + GRU | 0.92 | 0.83 | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.90 | |
MLP + LSTM | 0.88 | 0.85 | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.83 | |
MLP + GRU | 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.89 | 0.88 | 0.80 | |
CNN + BiLSTM | 0.88 | 0.96 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.98 | |
CNN + BiGRU | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.91 | |
Target 3 | Baseline: SVM | 0.52 | 0.90 | 0.68 | 0.52 | 0.50 |
CNN + LSTM | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.95 | 0.93 | |
CNN + GRU | 0.99 | 0.84 | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.92 | |
MLP + LSTM | 0.96 | 1.0 | 0.92 | 0.96 | 0.96 | |
MLP + GRU | 0.88 | 1.0 | 0.76 | 0.86 | 0.92 | |
CNN + BiLSTM | 0.88 | 0.88 | 0.88 | 0.85 | 0.74 | |
CNN + BiGRU | 0.99 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.99 | |
Target 4 | Baseline: SVM | 0.63 | 0.88 | 0.69 | 0.61 | 0.50 |
CNN + LSTM | 0.70 | 0.87 | 0.77 | 0.85 | 0.80 | |
CNN + GRU | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.81 | 0.85 | 0.82 | |
MLP + LSTM | 0.85 | 0.84 | 0.94 | 0.88 | 0.89 | |
MLP + GRU | 0.90 | 0.81 | 0.85 | 0.88 | 0.88 | |
CNN + BiLSTM | 0.88 | 0.88 | 0.94 | 0.91 | 0.96 | |
CNN + BiGRU | 0.80 | 0.88 | 0.84 | 0.88 | 0.82 |
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Baccouche, A.; Garcia-Zapirain, B.; Castillo Olea, C.; Elmaghraby, A. Ensemble Deep Learning Models for Heart Disease Classification: A Case Study from Mexico. Information 2020, 11, 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/info11040207
Baccouche A, Garcia-Zapirain B, Castillo Olea C, Elmaghraby A. Ensemble Deep Learning Models for Heart Disease Classification: A Case Study from Mexico. Information. 2020; 11(4):207. https://doi.org/10.3390/info11040207
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaccouche, Asma, Begonya Garcia-Zapirain, Cristian Castillo Olea, and Adel Elmaghraby. 2020. "Ensemble Deep Learning Models for Heart Disease Classification: A Case Study from Mexico" Information 11, no. 4: 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/info11040207