Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors: Applications, Challenges, and Future Scope
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Types of Biosensors
2.1. Catalytic Biosensors
2.2. Affinity Biosensors
3. Electrochemical Biosensors
3.1. Amperometric Biosensor
3.2. Voltammetric Methods
3.3. Impedimetric Biosensor
3.4. Potentiometric Biosensors
4. Applications of Electrochemical Biosensors
4.1. Food Industry
4.2. Medical Sciences
4.3. Defence
4.4. Metabolic Engineering and Plant Biology
5. Machine Learning for Biosensors
5.1. Improvement in Biosensor by ML
5.2. Various Algorithms in ML
5.3. ML Data Analysis
5.3.1. Support Vector Machine (SVM)
5.3.2. Feedforward Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)
5.3.3. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
5.3.4. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN)
6. Challenges and Solution
6.1. Challenges
- The LOD determines the lowest limit of the analyte that can be detected by a sensor and ideal biosensors must have a very low value of LOD.
- The reproducibility of sensors is very important when it comes to their fabrication and marketing. The results obtained for a particular sensor must be reproducible to all the similar sensors produced, as testing each sensor will not be possible.
- Finally, the most important characteristic of a sensor is its application to real samples. If a sensor is not effective in testing a real sample, it cannot be used in the diagnosis. The real samples that are mostly used for electrochemical biosensors are saliva, blood, urine, sweat, body fluid, tears, etc. The real sample collection is itself a challenge; some factors need to be considered for collecting a real sample for detection.
- The matrix effect in case of electrochemical sensors interferes with the sensor performance. To avoid this matrix effect, the real sample needs to be diluted, but extra dilution may cause deviation from reality. An ideal electrochemical biosensor should sense a real sample without requiring any processing and dilution. Similarly, the samples collected via saliva need dilution before sensing and the pH variation is the problem with the urine samples affecting the peak position. The tear samples due to less complexity have been used for diabetes detection, but the pH variation is again a challenge. Moreover, the concentration of the analytes in the tears produced from irritation and emotion may differ from each other. Moreover, the real samples contain species like protein, fats, etc. that may get adsorbed on the sensor surface and impact the sensitivity and reproducibility of an electrochemical biosensor. The researchers are looking for advanced new materials and techniques (active and passive methods) to address this issue. In the active method, shear forces are produced that prevent the adhesion of the extra species on the sensor surface, whereas in passive methods, polymers are used to make the surface hydrophilic, thus preventing proteins from adsorption. The biosensors developed must be stable under extreme environmental conditions and hence, the stability of the electrochemical biosensors is very important.
6.2. Solutions
- Using nanomaterials might address the stability issue in some cases, but some nanomaterials seem to aggregate and reduce stability.
- The miniaturization of the electrochemical biosensors and using cheap materials in their fabrication is another step that needs to be taken in making them cheap.
- Micro-nano fabrication techniques are effective in reducing the size of the electrochemical biosensor. The smaller biosensors would be easy to use and dispose of, can be transported easily, and their application in extreme conditions would involve fewer efforts.
- The electrochemical biosensors have mostly been confined to the research labs. There needs to be a collaboration between clinics, hospitals, and research labs so that they can be tested in real-life circumstances, which will help in evaluating their performance. Multidisciplinary approach is important for further widespread use and commercialization of biosensors.
- On a global scale, bacterial diseases are responsible for the greatest number of deaths and illnesses. The electrochemical biosensors can prove effective in sensing these bacterial infections at early stages. These biosensors would also be very useful in detecting new pathogens in the water sources. However, huge efforts on technical and scientific ground will be required to make them more viable. The designing and fabrication process needs to be made more cost-effective. Moreover, the enzymatic electrochemical biosensors are used commonly in the research, but their stability and modification remain a concern. Another challenge is the storage of enzymes.
- The integration of electrochemical biosensors with POC devices would be a great initiative for application in clinics. Such biosensors would not be affected by the interference species and can detect any concentration of the analyte. In addition to this, nano technology will help in improving the LOD and sensitivity of the electrochemical biosensors.
7. Future Outlook
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | Target | Biological Element | Target Matrix | Transducer Element | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amperometric | Cholesterol | Cholesterol oxidase | Human serum | Prussian Blue modified SPE | [16] |
Amperometric | Lactate | Lactate oxidase | Wine | Prussian Blue modified SPE | [17] |
Amperometric | Polyamines | Polyamine oxidase, spermine oxidase | Food | Prussian Blue modified SPE | [18] |
Amperometric | Lysine | Lysine oxidase | Cheese | Pt electrode | [19] |
Amperometric | Glucose | Glucose oxidase | Transdermal fluid | Transdermal microneedles | [20] |
Amperometric | Glucose | Glucose oxidase | - | Gold nanoelectrode | [21] |
Amperometric | Ethanol | Alcohol dehydrogenase | wine | Polyaniline doped modified SPE | [22] |
Amperometric | Antioxidant capacity | Superoxide disumlase | Fruit juice and berries | Pt electrode | [23] |
Amperometric differential | Antioxidant capacity+ ascorbate | Ascorbate oxidase | Fruit juice | Fullerene modified graphite | [24] |
Amperometric inhibition | Atrazine | Tyrosinase | Drinking water | Carbon modified SPE | [25] |
Amperometric | Oxygen profile | Biliribine oxidase | Microbial fuel cell | Pt electrode | [26] |
Label-free evanescent wave | IgG | Antibody | Human serum | Titania–silica-coated long period gratings optical fibers | [28] |
Label-free CCD + software for imaging | Prostate specific antigen | Antibody | Human serum | Dense arrays of micropillars | [29] |
Label-free field effect transistor | Interleukin 4 | Antibody | Human serum | Organic transistor | [30] |
Voltametric/ impedimetric | Aflatoxin B1 | Aptamer | Peanuts and peanuts corn snacks | Dendrimer- modified gold electrode | [32] |
Label-free, piezoelectric using 2 different aptamers | Metalloproteinase 9 | Aptamers | Human serum | Quartz crystal microbalance | [33] |
Colorimetric, aggregation using 2 aptamers | DNA methylation | Aptamers for α-thrombin | DNA | Au coated magnetic nanoparticles | [34] |
Impedimetric | Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 | Antibody | Human serum | Au–nano-particles on SPE | [35] |
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Singh, A.; Sharma, A.; Ahmed, A.; Sundramoorthy, A.K.; Furukawa, H.; Arya, S.; Khosla, A. Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors: Applications, Challenges, and Future Scope. Biosensors 2021, 11, 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11090336
Singh A, Sharma A, Ahmed A, Sundramoorthy AK, Furukawa H, Arya S, Khosla A. Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors: Applications, Challenges, and Future Scope. Biosensors. 2021; 11(9):336. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11090336
Chicago/Turabian StyleSingh, Anoop, Asha Sharma, Aamir Ahmed, Ashok K. Sundramoorthy, Hidemitsu Furukawa, Sandeep Arya, and Ajit Khosla. 2021. "Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors: Applications, Challenges, and Future Scope" Biosensors 11, no. 9: 336. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios11090336