Drinking Water and Biofilm as Sources of Antimicrobial Resistance in Free-Range Organic Broiler Farms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. General Description of DNA Sequences
2.2. Bacterial Community Composition and Diversity
2.3. ARG Prevalence, Relative Abundance, and Correlation with Taxa
3. Discussion
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Sampling Procedure
4.2. DNA Extraction from Faecal, DW, and Biofilm Samples
4.3. 16S rRNA Gene Amplification, Sequencing, and Data Analysis
4.4. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) Analysis of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes (ARGs)
4.5. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Number (n) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Number of barns | ||
≤2 | 4 | 40 |
3–4 | 5 | 50 |
5 | 1 | 10 |
Surface (m2) | ||
≤2000 | 4 | 40 |
2000–4000 | 1 | 10 |
>4000 | 5 | 50 |
Birds per cycle | ||
≤10,000 | 2 | 20 |
10,000–20,000 | 4 | 40 |
>20,000 | 4 | 40 |
Water source | ||
Water main | 4 | 40 |
Water well | 6 | 60 |
Annual microbiological control of DW | ||
Yes | 10 | 100 |
No | 0 | 0 |
Annual physical-chemical control of DW | ||
Yes | 10 | 100 |
No | 0 | 0 |
DW treatment during cycle | ||
Yes | 8 | 80 |
No | 2 | 20 |
DW treatment between cycles | ||
Yes | 3 | 30 |
No | 7 | 70 |
Products used for DW treatment | ||
Acidifiers | 1 | 10 |
Hypochlorite | 3 | 30 |
Hydrogen peroxide | 2 | 20 |
Acidifiers + Hypochlorite | 1 | 10 |
Hypochlorite + Hydrogen peroxide | 2 | 20 |
Acidifiers + Hypochlorite + Hydrogen peroxide | 1 | 10 |
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Piccirillo, A.; Tolosi, R.; Mughini-Gras, L.; Kers, J.G.; Laconi, A. Drinking Water and Biofilm as Sources of Antimicrobial Resistance in Free-Range Organic Broiler Farms. Antibiotics 2024, 13, 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13090808
Piccirillo A, Tolosi R, Mughini-Gras L, Kers JG, Laconi A. Drinking Water and Biofilm as Sources of Antimicrobial Resistance in Free-Range Organic Broiler Farms. Antibiotics. 2024; 13(9):808. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13090808
Chicago/Turabian StylePiccirillo, Alessandra, Roberta Tolosi, Lapo Mughini-Gras, Jannigje G. Kers, and Andrea Laconi. 2024. "Drinking Water and Biofilm as Sources of Antimicrobial Resistance in Free-Range Organic Broiler Farms" Antibiotics 13, no. 9: 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13090808