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Article

Effect of Holding Temperature on Wear and Corrosion Resistance of Rare Earth Oxide Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings

by
Ruolei Chen
1,
Wei Liu
2,
Zeyang Wang
2,
Biao Xie
2,
Zeng Yi
2,
Zhiyuan Wang
2,
Jingwei Xiao
1,
Jian Gu
3,* and
Kaiming Wang
2,*
1
International Institute of Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China
2
College of Mechanical and Vehicle Engineering, Changsha University of Science and Technology, Changsha 410114, China
3
State Grid Electric Power Engineering Research Institute Company Limited, Beijing 102401, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2025, 15(3), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15030290
Submission received: 17 January 2025 / Revised: 21 February 2025 / Accepted: 27 February 2025 / Published: 1 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Surface Technology and Application)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The challenging wind conditions surrounding power transmission lines exacerbate the wear and corrosion of transmission line fittings. Thermal diffusion galvanizing technology, a novel method for obtaining galvanizing layers, significantly enhances the wear and corrosion resistance of metal components, thereby extending their service life. Holding temperature plays a critical role in determining the performance of the thermally diffused zinc coating. In this study, we prepared thermally diffused zinc coatings containing rare earth oxides on 35CrMo steel at various holding temperatures and evaluated their morphology, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. The findings indicate that increasing the holding temperature enhances the diffusion of zinc and iron, yielding thicker coatings with a maximum thickness of 60 μm at a holding temperature of 450 °C. Notably, the zinc coating produced at a holding temperature of 410 °C exhibits optimal wear resistance at room temperature, and the wear failure mechanisms were predominantly abrasive wear and oxidative wear with slight adhesive wear. In addition, the zinc coating produced at a holding temperature of 430 °C exhibits optimal corrosion resistance at room temperature.

1. Introduction

In electric power systems, electrical fittings play a crucial role in maintaining the stable operation of a power grid. They primarily serve to connect and integrate various devices within the system, facilitate the transmission of mechanical loads, and protect transmission lines [1]. However, prolonged exposure to harsh environments such as wind, sand, rain erosion, and mechanical heavy loads can lead to corrosion, wear, and other detrimental effects on the surface of the fittings. This deterioration significantly compromises the operation safety of the power system [2,3,4,5]. Given the high costs associated with the direct replacement of fittings, there is an urgent need to develop methods that enhance the corrosion and wear resistance of their surfaces to prolong their service life.
35CrMo is a structural steel alloy characterized by high static strength, impact toughness, and an elevated fatigue limit. It is widely utilized in the manufacture of critical components for various machines that must endure impact, bending, torsion, and high loads [6]. The performance of 35CrMo ensures the safety and reliability of connection fittings, thereby supporting the stable operation of the power grid. Consequently, it serves as the substrate in this study.
Zinc is a material recognized for its excellent corrosion resistance and its ability to serve as a sacrificial anode, providing electrochemical protection for metal surfaces, thereby enhancing their corrosion resistance [7,8,9]. The incorporation of rare earth oxides into zinc coatings for steel significantly enhances the performance of steel fixtures. As additives, rare earth elements are effective for deoxidation, impurity purification, grain refinement, and performance modification [10]. Rare earth oxides, which are compounds formed from rare earth elements and oxygen, are known to improve material performance such as wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability. In metal coatings, their incorporation can refine the microstructure, resulting in improved uniformity and mechanical characteristics. Liang et al. [11] demonstrated that the addition of CeO2/GO modifies the interface structure of Cu30Cr0.2Zr electrical contacts, leading to enhanced mechanical properties and improved arc erosion resistance, thereby extending the service life of both the electrical contacts and the entire electrical system. Liu et al. [12] used CeO2 as the catalyst into the zincizing agent in the zinc PPDC treatment of the Mg–4Y–4Al magnesium alloy. Their results indicated that with the increase in CeO2 addition, the thickness and compactness, as well as corrosion resistance, of zinc coatings initially increase and then decrease. Moreover, Zhang et al. [13] explored the effects of adding yttrium (Y) to a Zn-AlMg plating bath, which resulted in the development of a novel hot-dip galvanizing coating exhibiting high corrosion resistance. To enhance the performance of thermally diffused zinc coatings, we incorporate a small amount of rare earth oxides, as they enhance corrosion and wear resistance.
Hot-dip galvanizing is a technology in which steel is immersed in a molten zinc solution, resulting in the formation of a galvanized layer on the metal surface. This established process is characterized by low production costs, making it a common choice for preparing galvanized layers on metal surfaces [14,15,16]. However, hot-dip galvanizing technology tends to waste substantial amounts of zinc powder during application and generates considerable liquid waste, which contributes to environmental pollution and does not comply with environmental protection standards. Therefore, the development of more environmentally friendly technologies is essential. Thermal diffusion galvanizing technology represents a novel approach to preparing zinc coatings. This method involves heating zinc powder alongside the substrate, allowing zinc to diffuse into the surface to form a protective galvanized layer. Unlike hot-dip galvanizing, this technique does not produce liquid waste, thereby minimizing environmental pollution. Furthermore, it conserves zinc powder by recycling unused material, which helps to reduce production costs [17,18,19,20,21]. Up until now, numerous studies have been conducted on thermal diffusion galvanizing technology. He et al. [22] investigated the effects of varying chromium (Cr) content and holding time on the thickness and structure of the Zn-Al intermetallic layer. Their results indicated that increased Cr content and longer holding time enhanced the thickness of the diffusion layer. Additionally, higher Cr levels transformed a single iron–aluminum intermetallic layer into a combination of iron–aluminum and iron–zinc intermetallic layer. Longer holding times also facilitated the formation of the iron–zinc phase, thereby reducing the production of the iron–aluminum phase. Liu et al. [23] incorporated 1.8% magnesium (Mg) powder into the zincizing agent, resulting in the formation of two intermetallic compounds, MgZn2 and Mg2Zn11, within the Zn-Mg alloy intermetallic layer, which enhanced its corrosion resistance. Liang et al. [24] investigated the effects of varying molybdenum (Mo) content on the corrosion and wear resistance of the Zn-Al alloy intermetallic layer, revealing optimal corrosion and wear resistance at a Mo content of 15%. Additionally, the thickness of the Zn-Al alloy intermetallic layer increases progressively with prolonged holding time. Kania and Sipa [25] examined the effects of a novel thermal diffusion (sherardizing) process on the zinc coating of high-strength grade 10.9 bolts, which includes the recirculation of a reactive atmosphere. This approach not only provides effective anti-corrosion protection but also preserves the strength properties of the bolts.
Currently, research on thermal diffusion galvanizing technology primarily concentrates on the impact of various formulations of zincizing agents on the thickness and corrosion resistance of the thermally diffused zinc coating. However, process parameters such as holding temperature significantly affect the thickness and performance of zinc coatings in the thermal diffusion galvanizing process. It is important to note that there is limited research on these parameters, particularly concerning the effect of holding temperature on the mechanisms of wear resistance. Therefore, in this study, we prepared the thermally diffused zinc coatings on the surface of 35CrMo steel at different holding temperatures using thermal diffusion galvanizing technology and investigated the effects of varying holding temperatures on the macroscopic morphology, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance of the zinc coating. This research can provide an experimental basis and practical guide for optimizing high-performance zinc coating and support the development of thermal diffusion galvanizing technology in the electric power industry.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Material

A 35CrMo steel plate measuring 50 × 30 × 3 mm was utilized as the thermally diffused zinc specimen. The samples were ground with 320-mesh, 400-mesh, 800-mesh, 1000-mesh, 1200-mesh, 1500-mesh, and 2000-mesh sandpaper in turn, and then the samples were polished with a 2.5 μm efficient metallurgical polishing solution [26]. The samples were blow dried after polishing, and then an alcohol solution was used for cleaning. The zincizing agent was composed of zinc powder, alumina powder, ammonium chloride powder, and rare earth oxide (CeO2) in a mass fraction ratio of 71:25:2:2. The zinc powder morphology is represented in Figure 1.
The thermal diffusion galvanizing process typically occurs at temperatures ranging from 380 °C to 420 °C [27], with the exact temperature varying according to the specific process and materials employed. Notably, the incorporation of rare earth oxides affects the diffusion behavior of zinc and iron, thereby altering the coating formation mechanism and ultimately modifying the optimal temperature for thermal diffusion galvanizing. Research indicates that rare earth elements, such as lanthanum (La), refine the microstructure, enhancing coating uniformity and corrosion resistance [28]. Furthermore, a temperature variation of 20 °C is regarded as a significant change within the thermal diffusion galvanizing process, making this range adequate for substantial analysis. Additionally, a holding time of 2 h was selected to strike an optimal balance between achieving high-quality coating and preventing excessive diffusion. Therefore, thermal diffusion galvanizing experiments were conducted in a multi-alloy co-diffusion furnace, maintaining a holding time of 2 h and holding temperatures of 410 °C, 430 °C, and 450 °C.

2.2. Wear Test at Room Temperature

The wear test was performed at room temperature using an HT-1000 friction and wear testing machine (Lanzhou Zhongke Kaihua Technology Development Co., Lanzhou, China). The testing parameters included a grinding ball made of 4 mm Si3N4, a load of 10 N, a rotational radius of 3 mm, a motor speed of 500 rpm, and a wear duration of 30 min. After the wear test, the masses of the samples were measured before and after the experiment using a high-precision balance, enabling the calculation of the wear amount. Following the experiment, the wear morphology was measured using a Zygo NexView three-dimensional white light interferometric surface profiler (ZYGO, Middlefield, CT, USA), and the wear surface morphology was observed using a SEM3100 scanning electron microscope (Guo Yi Quantum Technology Co., Hefei, China).

2.3. Corrosion Resistance Test

The corrosion resistance of the samples was tested using an electrochemical workstation (CHI660) with a corrosion solution of 3.5 wt.% NaCl. This concentration is commonly employed in corrosion studies because it simulates seawater salinity, thereby balancing experimental practicality with real-world relevance. Lower NaCl concentrations (e.g., 0.5–2 wt.%) diminish electrolyte conductivity, whereas higher concentrations (e.g., 5–10 wt.%) may produce unrealistic corrosion rates. The selection of 3.5 wt.% NaCl aligns with standard protocols, ensuring comparability with previous research.
Initially, the sample was subjected to open-circuit potential (OCP) test for 30 min, followed by an electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) test over a frequency range from 10−2 Hz to 105 Hz with an amplitude of 10 mV. Finally, the samples were subjected to Tafel polarization within a test range of −2 V to 0.5 V and a scanning speed of 1 mV/s.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Effect of Different Holding Temperature on Morphology of Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings

The cross-sectional morphology of thermally diffused zinc coatings at varying holding temperatures is illustrated in Figure 2. The figure indicates that different holding temperatures significantly influence the thickness of the zinc coatings; as the holding temperature increases, so does the thickness of the zinc coatings. However, the upper section of the zinc coating is not entirely smooth, exhibiting uneven areas, a phenomenon that is more pronounced at lower holding temperatures. At lower temperatures, zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) atoms have less diffusion activation energy, resulting in a slower diffusion rate during the formation of the zinc coating. This leads to insufficient diffusion reactions and fewer Zn atoms entering the substrate [29]. When the accumulation of zinc atoms on the surface exceeds the number that can diffuse into the substrate through reactive diffusion, the excess Zn atoms aggregate on the outer surface, forming raised zinc clumps and resulting in partial non-uniformity in the upper section of the zinc coating [30]. As the holding temperature increases, the surface roughness of the zinc coating improves. Additionally, noticeable cracks are observed in all zinc coatings due to substantial residual stress during the thermal diffusion galvanizing process. When this residual stress is tensile and exceeds the fracture strength of the zinc coating, cracks inevitably form [8]. The number of cracks in the layer varies with different holding temperatures; higher temperatures increase the likelihood of cracking and yield more internal cracks. Most cracks originate at the surface and extend towards the substrate, becoming thinner until they disappear. This pattern indicates that cracks are growing along the diffusion direction of Zn atoms [31]. At higher holding temperatures, the diffusion activation energy for Zn atoms increases, resulting in longer diffusion distance and a thicker zinc coating. This promotes the formation of more Zn-Fe intermetallic compounds. Due to the significant difference in linear thermal expansion coefficient between Zn-Fe intermetallic compounds and the substrate, differential contraction during the cooling process leads to an increase in internal cracks within the zinc coating as the holding temperature rises [32].
To investigate the impact of holding temperature on the diffusion of Zn and Fe atoms within thermally diffused zinc coatings, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) line scanning was conducted at various holding temperatures, with the results presented in Figure 3. The analysis shows that the Fe content increases from the top to the bottom of the zinc coating, while the Zn content decreases correspondingly. This trend indicates that Fe primarily diffuses outward from the substrate, whereas Zn diffuses inward from the zincizing agent into the substrate, leading to the gradual formation of the zinc coating through the diffusion of Zn and Fe elements. As the holding temperature rises, the diffusion distance of both Zn and Fe increases, indicating that higher temperatures provide the diffusion atoms with greater energy, thus facilitating the diffusion process. Moreover, as can be seen from the EDS line scanning results, once elemental diffusion within the zinc coating stabilizes, the concentration of Zn is significantly greater than that of Fe. This indicates that the diffusion flux of Zn is higher than that of Fe, primarily due to the smaller atomic radius of Zn, which allows for easier diffusion compared to Fe [33,34]. Notably, as the holding temperature increases, the concentration difference between the two elements can be effectively reduced, leading to a relative increase in the concentration of Fe within the zinc coating.
To evaluate the effect of varying holding temperatures on the thickness of thermally diffused zinc coatings, the thickness of the zinc coatings was measured. The results are illustrated in Figure 4 and Table 1. The data indicate that the thickness of the zinc coating increases with rising holding temperatures, reaching a maximum average thickness at 450 °C. The formation of the zinc coating primarily results from the mutual diffusion of Zn and Fe atoms. Higher holding temperatures provide these atoms with additional energy, thereby facilitating their diffusion. Consequently, the formation of the zinc coating accelerates at elevated temperatures, leading to an increase in the thickness of the zinc coating as the holding temperature rises.
Although the maximum average coating thickness was observed at 450 °C, higher temperatures were not tested due to significant degradation in wear and corrosion resistance beyond this threshold. Given these detrimental effects on coating performance, increasing the temperature further would not yield improved overall results, making investigations of temperatures above 450 °C unnecessary.

3.2. Effect of Different Holding Temperatures on the Wear Resistance of Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings

The friction coefficients of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures are depicted in Figure 5. It can be seen that the friction coefficients initially decrease and then increase with rising holding temperatures. Additionally, the friction and wear process of all zinc coatings exhibit both a break in stage and a steady wear stage. During the approximately 250 s break-in stage, the friction coefficients of the zinc coatings at 3 holding temperature points gradually rise. In the wear stage, the friction coefficient at 410 °C fluctuates steadily between 0.6 and 0.7, while those at 430 °C and 450 °C fluctuate between 0.3 and 0.6, ultimately stabilizing around 0.5. The friction coefficients were low at the beginning of the steady wear stage. This may be due to the effective densification and high hardness of the zinc coating, resulting in a smaller contact area between the wear surface and the counter-abrasive ball. Over time, the contact area between the wear surface and the ball gradually increases, leading to a corresponding rise in the friction coefficient. During the wear stage, the friction coefficient at 410 °C fluctuates steadily, while the values at 430 °C and 450 °C exhibit greater variability. This may be due to the thinner zinc coating at 410 °C, which allows for a more uniform distribution of rare earth oxides within the layer. As holding temperature increases, the thickness of the zinc coating increases and the distribution of rare earth oxides becomes less uniform, resulting in uneven hardness across the wear surface, leading to larger fluctuations in the friction coefficients. Additionally, these fluctuations are further exacerbated by an increase in cracks.
The wear amount of the thermally diffused zinc coatings at various holding temperatures is shown in Figure 6 and Table 2. It can be seen that the wear amount increases progressively with rising holding temperatures, indicating that different holding temperatures significantly impact the wear resistance of the zinc coatings. At a holding temperature of 410 °C, the wear loss of the zinc coating is 0.32 mg; at 430 °C, the wear loss increases to 2.67 mg, and at 450 °C, it rises sharply to 4.38 mg. This trend may be attributed to the formation of more cracks inside the zinc coating as holding temperatures increase, which adversely affects its wear resistance.
The macroscopic morphology of the wear scars on the thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures, along with two-dimensional cross-section profiles of the wear scars, is illustrated in Figure 7. Both the depth and width of the wear scars on the zinc coating increase progressively with rising holding temperatures. Notably, the wear scars are shallowest at a holding temperature of 410 °C, further confirming that the zinc coating exhibits the best wear resistance at this temperature.
To analyze the wear process and wear mechanism of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures, the wear surface morphology of the zinc coatings was observed by SEM, and the results are presented in Figure 8. From Figure 8a,c,e, it can be seen that with the increase in the holding temperature, the wear track on the surface of the zinc coating becomes obviously wider and deeper, indicating that the wear resistance of the zinc coating decreases with the increase in holding temperature. During the reciprocating friction motion, the coating continually generates oxide wear debris, which is expelled along the direction of motion. However, some debris does not fully discharge, leading to constant compaction in the furrows or at the edges of the wear marks, ultimately forming an oxide layer on the coating [35]. The hardness of the Si3N4 grinding ball is higher than that of the zinc coating, resulting in the plastic deformation of the zinc surface and the formation of blocky spalling areas. Figure 8b,d,f reveal that furrows and varying degrees of spalling are present on the wear surfaces of all zinc coatings. At lower holding temperatures, the wear surface is primarily characterized by wide furrows and fewer spalling pits, with the dominant wear mechanism being abrasive wear accompanied by slight adhesive wear. As friction progresses and temperature increases, the number of oxide layers also rises. At a holding temperature of 430 °C, abrasive wear particles formed from abrasive processes lead to the creation of metal attachments, which subsequently generate fatigue cracks due to surface spalling. These cracks continue to expand, ultimately resulting in the spalling of the zinc coating. At this temperature, the main wear mechanisms are fatigue wear and oxidative wear, accompanied by adhesive wear. With further increases in holding temperature, the accumulation of cracks within the zinc coating leads to larger defects. Consequently, more adherent material is lost from the surface of the zinc coating, and the flaking phenomenon becomes more severe, accompanied by an increase in the number of oxide layers. This results in aggravated oxidative wear and adhesive wear, with the spalling material adhering to the grinding ball causing more severe fatigue wear during surface abrasion [36]. In summary, as holding temperature increases, the wear loss of the zinc coating also rises significantly, leading to decreased wear resistance. EDS analysis was performed on the elements present on the wear surface, with the spot scan results detailed in Table 3. The analysis indicates that the content of oxygen elements generally increases with higher holding temperatures, suggesting that the degree of oxidative wear on zinc coatings intensifies with increasing temperature during the abrasion process.
At a holding temperature of 430 °C, the wear morphology of the thermally diffused zinc coating is depicted in Figure 9, revealing that the wear debris are primarily composed of lumps and fine powder. EDS point scanning was conducted on the wear debris, and the results presented in Table 4 indicate high levels of oxygen (O) and zinc (Zn), alongside low levels of iron (Fe) and carbon (C) in the wear debris, so the wear debris may originate from the zinc coating, which was stripped away by the grinding ball.

3.3. Effect of Different Holding Temperatures on the Corrosion Resistance of Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings

To investigate the effect of different holding temperatures on the corrosion resistance of thermally diffused zinc coatings, the electrochemical corrosion behavior of the zinc coating was tested using electrochemical methods at varying holding temperatures. Initially, an open-circuit potential (OCP) test was conducted on the samples for 1800 s to achieve a steady state in a 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution, with the results presented in Figure 10. A more negative OCP indicates that the sample is more prone to losing electrons, thereby increasing susceptibility to corrosion. A shift in the OCP towards more positive potentials indicates the formation of a passive film on the sample, while the disruption or absence of the passive film results in the OCP to shift towards more negative potentials [37]. Initially, the OCP of the zinc coating at a holding temperature of 430 °C is the closest to the positive potential. With prolonged immersion, the OCP of all zinc coatings stabilized, indicating that each layer formed a stable passive film in the 3.5% NaCl solution. The stabilization of the OCP indicates that the generation rate of the passive film and the dissolution rate has reached equilibrium. A higher OCP at a steady state indicates improved corrosion resistance of the sample [38]. The OCP at holding temperatures of 410 °C, 430 °C, and 450 °C ultimately stabilized at −0.96 V, −0.87 V, and −0.98 V, respectively. In addition, at a holding temperature of 430 °C, the OCP of the zinc coating reached its highest value at the steady state.
The Tafel curves of the thermally diffused zinc coating are illustrated in Figure 11. The polarization behavior of the layers at different holding temperatures is similar, indicating that the holding temperature does not influence the corrosion mechanism of the zinc coating. All zinc coatings exhibit two continuous passive regions during the anodic polarization process, and an additional passive region is observed at the end of anodic polarization. This phenomenon occurs because chloride ions (Cl−) initially degrade the passive film (formed by Zn2+ and OH−) through pitting corrosion. As corrosion products accumulate, dissolved oxygen in the solution continuously repairs the damaged passive film, leading to the appearance of a secondary passivation interval in the polarization curve [30]. The polarization curves of the zinc coatings were fitted at three different temperatures using extrapolation, and the resulting electrochemical corrosion parameters are summarized in Table 5. The corrosion potential reflects the likelihood of corrosion occurring in the test samples; specifically, a more positive corrosion potential indicates a lower probability of corrosion during the electrochemical process. The corrosion current density reflects the actual corrosion rate of the test samples during the corrosion; a lower corrosion current density denotes a reduced actual corrosion rate, indicating a more difficult corrosion reaction and enhanced corrosion resistance [39,40,41]. From the data presented in Table 5, it is evident that, at a holding temperature of 410 °C, the corrosion potential of the zinc coating is −1.295 V, with a corrosion current density of 1.900 × 10−4 A/cm2. As the holding temperature increases, the corrosion potential of the zinc coating initially shifts in the positive direction and then in the negative direction, while the corrosion current density initially decreases and then increases. At a holding temperature of 430 °C, the corrosion potential of the zinc coating is −1.287 V. The corrosion current density is minimal at this temperature, with a value of 1.529 × 10−4 A/cm2. At a holding temperature of 450 °C, the corrosion potential of the zinc coating is −1.309 V, and the corrosion current density is 2.071 × 10−4 A/cm2. This pattern indicates that the corrosion resistance of the zinc coating increases and then decreases as the holding temperature rises. In addition, the zinc coating exhibits the best corrosion resistance at a holding temperature of 430 °C. The experimental results presented by Wang et al. [41] indicate that the corrosion current density of samples subjected to hot-dip galvanizing was 2.130 × 10−4 A/cm2. In contrast, samples that underwent initial hot-dip galvanizing followed by thermal diffusion galvanizing exhibited a corrosion current density of 1.800 × 10−4 A/cm2. Moreover, samples treated with hot-dip galvanizing in a vacuum environment exhibited a corrosion current density of 2.600 × 10−4 A/cm2. A further comparison of the corrosion results of the zinc coating held at a temperature of 430 °C, as shown in Table 6, reveals that, at this temperature, we obtained a lower corrosion current density and a slower corrosion rate compared to the previously similar zinc coating [42]. This observation suggests that the zinc coatings we prepared demonstrate superior corrosion resistance.
To further investigate the effect of varying holding temperatures on the galvanic corrosion behavior of thermally diffused zinc coatings, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of the test samples in a 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution was analyzed, and the results are presented in Figure 12. The results confirmed and supported the trends observed in the Tafel tests, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the coating’s performance under different conditions. The Nyquist plot in Figure 12a reveals that the capacitive resistance radius Z″/Z′ of the zinc coating initially increases and then decreases with rising holding temperatures, suggesting that the corrosion resistance of the zinc coating follows a similar trend. Additionally, the Bode plots in Figure 12b,c demonstrate that both the impedance modulus |Z| and the maximum phase angle of the zinc coating initially increase and then decrease as the holding temperature rises. Higher values of impedance modulus |Z| and phase angle indicate better corrosion resistance. The equivalent circuit fitted to the EIS data is depicted in Figure 12d, with the fitting results presented in Table 6. Rs represents the working resistance of the 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution between the electrode and the reference electrode, while Rct denotes the charge transfer resistance between the zinc coating and the NaCl solution. The behavior of the double-layer capacitor is described using a constant phase element (CPE). The parameter n refers to the exponential term in the constant phase angle element, and ∑χ2 indicates the fitting error [43]. The counter electrode (CE), reference electrode (RE), and working electrode are the Pt electrode, Saturated calomel electrode (SCE), and coating with an area of 1 cm2, respectively. By combining the results from Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12a–c and Table 7, it is observed that the corrosion resistance of the zinc coating increases and then decreases with rising holding temperature, with the zinc coating exhibiting optimal corrosion resistance at a holding temperature of 430 °C. This may be due to the gradual formation of cracks within the zinc coating as the holding temperature increases, which exposes more of the substrate to the NaCl solution, thereby leading to an initial increase followed by a decrease in corrosion resistance with rising temperature [27].

4. Conclusions

In this study, a zinc coating containing rare earth oxides was applied to the surface of 35CrMo steel, a suitable material, using thermal diffusion galvanizing technology at different holding temperatures. The effects of these temperatures on the morphology, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance of the zinc coating were investigated, leading to the following key conclusions:
  • As the holding temperature increases, the diffused zinc and iron atoms gain energy, facilitating the formation of the thermally diffused zinc coating and resulting in an increase in its thickness. At a holding temperature of 450 °C, the zinc coating reaches a maximum thickness of 60 μm. Although thicker zinc coatings can be achieved at temperatures 450 °C, doing so adversely affects surface topography, friction resistance, and corrosion resistance. Therefore, it is recommended to maintain the holding temperature below 450 °C.
  • As the holding temperature increases, both the average friction coefficient and the wear loss of the thermally diffused zinc coating rise. The primary wear mechanism transitions from abrasive wear to fatigue wear and adhesive wear, accompanied by progressively more severe oxidative wear. Notably, the thermally diffused zinc coating produced at 410 °C exhibits the lowest wear loss at room temperature, indicating its optimal wear resistance.
  • As the holding temperature increases, the corrosion current density of the thermally diffused zinc coating exhibits an initial increase, followed by a decrease, and then a further increase, leading to a corresponding trend in its corrosion resistance. The thermally diffused zinc coating produced at 430 °C exhibits the fewest cracks at room temperature, indicating its optimal corrosion resistance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.W.; methodology, R.C. and K.W.; software, R.C. and W.L.; formal analysis, R.C., W.L., B.X., Z.Y., Z.W. (Zeyang Wang) and Z.W. (Zhiyuan Wang); investigation, W.L., J.X. and J.G.; resources, J.G. and K.W.; data curation, R.C. and W.L.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C. and W.L.; writing—review and editing, B.X., Z.Y., Z.W. (Zhiyuan Wang), J.G. and K.W.; supervision, J.G. and K.W.; project administration, K.W.; funding acquisition, K.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support for this work from Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province (2022JJ40495) and Research and Development Project of China Electric Power Research Institute Co., Ltd. (GC80-21-002).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Jian Gu was employed by the company State Grid Electric Power Engineering Research Institute Company Limited. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Microscopic morphology of zinc powder.
Figure 1. Microscopic morphology of zinc powder.
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Figure 2. Cross-sectional morphology of thermally diffused zinc coatings under different holding temperatures: (a) 410 °C; (b) 430 °C; (c) 450 °C.
Figure 2. Cross-sectional morphology of thermally diffused zinc coatings under different holding temperatures: (a) 410 °C; (b) 430 °C; (c) 450 °C.
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Figure 3. EDS line scanning results of thermally diffused zinc coatings under different holding temperatures: (a) 410 °C; (b) 430 °C; (c) 450 °C.
Figure 3. EDS line scanning results of thermally diffused zinc coatings under different holding temperatures: (a) 410 °C; (b) 430 °C; (c) 450 °C.
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Figure 4. Thickness of thermally diffused zinc coating at different holding temperature.
Figure 4. Thickness of thermally diffused zinc coating at different holding temperature.
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Figure 5. Friction coefficient of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
Figure 5. Friction coefficient of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
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Figure 6. Wear loss of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
Figure 6. Wear loss of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
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Figure 7. Two-dimensional, three-dimensional wear mark morphologies of Zn coatings at different temperatures: (a) 410 °C coating; (b) 430 °C coating; (c) 450 °C coating; (d) Width and depth of wear.
Figure 7. Two-dimensional, three-dimensional wear mark morphologies of Zn coatings at different temperatures: (a) 410 °C coating; (b) 430 °C coating; (c) 450 °C coating; (d) Width and depth of wear.
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Figure 8. Wear surface morphology of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures: (a) 410 °C; (b) 410 °C; (c) 430 °C; (d) 430 °C; (e) 450 °C; (f) 450 °C.
Figure 8. Wear surface morphology of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures: (a) 410 °C; (b) 410 °C; (c) 430 °C; (d) 430 °C; (e) 450 °C; (f) 450 °C.
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Figure 9. Morphology of wear debris of thermally diffused zinc coating at 430 °C.
Figure 9. Morphology of wear debris of thermally diffused zinc coating at 430 °C.
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Figure 10. Effect of holding temperatures on OCP of thermally diffused zinc coating.
Figure 10. Effect of holding temperatures on OCP of thermally diffused zinc coating.
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Figure 11. Polarization curves of thermally diffused zinc coating at different holding temperatures.
Figure 11. Polarization curves of thermally diffused zinc coating at different holding temperatures.
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Figure 12. EIS impedance diagram of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures: (a) Nyquist plot; (b) and (c) Bode plot; (d) equivalent circuit diagram.
Figure 12. EIS impedance diagram of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures: (a) Nyquist plot; (b) and (c) Bode plot; (d) equivalent circuit diagram.
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Table 1. Thickness of thermally diffused zinc coating at different holding temperature.
Table 1. Thickness of thermally diffused zinc coating at different holding temperature.
ColumnHolding Temperature (°C)Thickness of Zinc Coating (μm)
A41022
B43046
C45060
Table 2. Wear loss of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
Table 2. Wear loss of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
ColumnHolding Temperature (°C)Wear Loss of Zinc Coating (/mg)
A-14100.32
A-24302.67
A-34504.38
Table 3. EDS results of thermally diffused zinc coating wear surface at different holding temperatures (wt.%).
Table 3. EDS results of thermally diffused zinc coating wear surface at different holding temperatures (wt.%).
PointFeZnOC
19.5980.441.848.13
27.0170.457.8414.70
310.3659.3123.237.10
410.8370.199.269.72
515.8943.2327.5913.29
618.7069.972.089.25
Table 4. EDS results of wear debris of thermally diffused zinc coating at 430 °C (wt.%).
Table 4. EDS results of wear debris of thermally diffused zinc coating at 430 °C (wt.%).
PointFeZnOC
16.6668.6314.2010.51
210.1466.0515.168.65
Table 5. Electrochemical parameters of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
Table 5. Electrochemical parameters of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
NumberHolding Temperature (°C)Corrosion Voltage (V)Corrosion Current Density (A/cm2)
1410−1.2951.900 × 10−4
2430−1.2871.529 × 10−4
3450−1.3092.071 × 10−4
Table 6. Comparison of corrosion current densities in similar experiments (A/cm2).
Table 6. Comparison of corrosion current densities in similar experiments (A/cm2).
Our ExperimentWang et al. [42] Experiment
Holding temperature (°C)Corrosion
current density (A/cm2)		Holding temperature (°C)Corrosion
current density (A/cm2)
4301.529 × 10−4Hot-dip galvanizing2.130 × 10−4
Hot-dip galvanizing
+ Thermal diffusion
galvanizing		1.800 × 10−4
Hot-dip galvanizing
(Vacuum environment)		2.600 × 10−4
Table 7. EIS fitting data of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
Table 7. EIS fitting data of thermally diffused zinc coatings at different holding temperatures.
Holding Temperature (°C)Rs (Ω·cm2)CPE (S·Secn·cm−2)nRct (Ω·cm2)∑χ2
4104.4622.833 × 10−40.73031858.59 × 10−3
4304.8633.942 × 10−40.72139367.46 × 10−3
4504.6566.545 × 10−40.63114771.12 × 10−3
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MDPI and ACS Style

Chen, R.; Liu, W.; Wang, Z.; Xie, B.; Yi, Z.; Wang, Z.; Xiao, J.; Gu, J.; Wang, K. Effect of Holding Temperature on Wear and Corrosion Resistance of Rare Earth Oxide Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings. Coatings 2025, 15, 290. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15030290

AMA Style

Chen R, Liu W, Wang Z, Xie B, Yi Z, Wang Z, Xiao J, Gu J, Wang K. Effect of Holding Temperature on Wear and Corrosion Resistance of Rare Earth Oxide Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings. Coatings. 2025; 15(3):290. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15030290

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chen, Ruolei, Wei Liu, Zeyang Wang, Biao Xie, Zeng Yi, Zhiyuan Wang, Jingwei Xiao, Jian Gu, and Kaiming Wang. 2025. "Effect of Holding Temperature on Wear and Corrosion Resistance of Rare Earth Oxide Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings" Coatings 15, no. 3: 290. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15030290

APA Style

Chen, R., Liu, W., Wang, Z., Xie, B., Yi, Z., Wang, Z., Xiao, J., Gu, J., & Wang, K. (2025). Effect of Holding Temperature on Wear and Corrosion Resistance of Rare Earth Oxide Thermally Diffused Zinc Coatings. Coatings, 15(3), 290. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15030290

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