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Review

Review of Preparation, Performance, and Application of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets

by
Wenyan Zhai
*,
Yujing Wei
,
Liang Sun
and
Jiaao Lv
College of Materials Science and Engineering, Xi’an Shiyou University, Xi’an 710065, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Coatings 2025, 15(4), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040393
Submission received: 20 February 2025 / Revised: 17 March 2025 / Accepted: 25 March 2025 / Published: 26 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances of Ceramic and Alloy Coatings, 2nd Edition)
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Abstract

:
Chromium-carbide-based cermets have been widely exploited for a number of applications, particularly in petroleum engineering, the metallurgical industry, and aerospace areas, due to their unique properties, such as high hardness and melting point, excellent oxidation, and wear resistance at elevated temperatures. However, the defects of the bulk Cr3C2-Ni cermets are their greater brittleness and lower strength at room temperature. In order to increase the strength and extend the service life of this material, researchers have carried out many explorations of the preparation technology and composition optimization. This paper reviewed the preparation process of bulk Cr3C2-Ni cermets. In addition, the influence of different elements’ addition on the microstructural, mechanical, and wear properties of the cermets were systematically reported. Furthermore, the industrial applications of Cr3C2-NiCr coatings and the prospects for their future development are also introduced.

1. Introduction

Cr3C2-Ni cermets simultaneously possess the high strength and toughness of metal and the high hardness and high melting point of ceramic materials [1,2,3], so they have excellent corrosion resistance and wear resistance, known as “industrial teeth”. This composite is widely used in machinery, mining, petrochemical, aerospace, and other fields. It has become an indispensable tool material and structural material in modern industrial sectors and new technological fields. The density [4] of the Cr3C2-Ni composite is low and is only about half than that of the WC ceramic composite [5,6]. The hardness of the Cr3C2-Ni composite at room temperature is about HRA88, which is comparable to the hardness and wear resistance of the WC ceramic composite YG8. Compared to TiC ceramic composites [7,8,9,10], the thermal expansion coefficient of Cr3C2-Ni composites (10.3 × 10−6·°C−1) is significantly higher and similar to steel (12 × 10−6·°C−1). The red hardness is excellent and the Vickers hardness is still greater than 900 HV at 800 °C. Cr3C2-Ni composites are suitable for high-temperature hot extrusion mold, high-temperature mechanical parts, and other fields. At the same time, Cr3C2-Ni composites possess excellent corrosion resistance in strong acid, strong alkali, seawater, industrial petroleum, and other corrosive media. Therefore, Cr3C2-Ni composites are promising materials with good wear resistance and corrosion resistance [11,12,13].
Bulk Cr3C2-Ni cermets were first studied and developed in the 1950s. Since then, scholars have carried out a wide range of research, which can be roughly divided into the following four stages. The first stage was the 1950s and 1960s: American scholars began to study Cr3C2-Ni ceramic composites. The Cr3C2 ceramic particles and metal Ni powder were mixed and pressed to produce Cr3C2-Ni ceramic composites using powder metallurgy technology (PM). However, the grain size of the ceramic phase in the Cr3C2-Ni cermets prepared using this method was large. The bending strength and toughness of the composite were poor [14]. The second stage was in the 1970s and 1980s: In order to effectively reduce the sintering temperature, scientists [15,16,17] began to dope P element in metal Ni to generate a Ni-P alloy phase and successfully prepared Cr3C2-Ni-P cermet composites. It was considered that the performance of the composite prepared at 1050 °C and P content of 4.0 wt.% was the best. The third stage was in the 1990s: The Turkish researcher C. Duran [18] and other researchers prepared Cr3C2/NiCr cermet composite materials with different chromium carbide content using liquid-phase sintering. They studied the mechanical properties (hardness and bending strength) of this kind of chromium carbide cermet composite. When Ni:Cr = 4:1, the density of the cermet composites was the highest. In addition, the hardness raised and the bending strength decreased with the increase in Cr3C2 content. After 2005, the scientists Juri Pirso and I. Hussainova [19,20,21,22,23,24] from Estonia began to study the preparation method of reaction sintering using Cr, C, and Ni original powders. The chromium carbide was in situ generated, and the liquid-phase sintering of the bonding phase was also completed in this stage. The results showed that the grain size of the composites prepared using reaction sintering was smaller, and the mechanical properties were also better than that of traditional powder metallurgy technology. Adding some amount of Mo element [25] can also increase the mechanical properties of Cr3C2-Ni cermets. The new ceramic phases (Cr, Mo)3C2 and (Cr, Mo)7C3 appeared after adding Mo, which effectively refined the grain size of the ceramic phase and promoted the diffusion of Cr and Ni. Therefore, the bonding strengths of the ceramic phase and binder phase was increased.
In addition, Cr3C2-NiCr coatings have become one of the most successful cermet coating systems. Cr3C2-NiCr coatings exhibit superior corrosion and oxidation resistance [26,27,28], which have been widely used in valve spindles, stems, power plant boilers, and medium–low-temperature furnace rolls in the metallurgy industry [29]. This special coating can effectively mitigate surface damage and increase the service life of the mechanical components [30]. Firstly, Cr3C2-NiCr coatings have been extensively used to combat the erosion corrosion of hydro-power turbine blades made of stainless steel. Cr3C2-NiCr coatings possess high wear resistance due to the low porosity and high hardness compared to bare steel and hard chromium coatings [31]. Additionally, Cr3C2-NiCr coatings are deposited on the magnesium alloy substrate using high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) spraying. The results of the investigations confirmed that dense, homogeneous, and well-adhered Cr3C2-NiCr cermet coatings were successfully obtained on the AZ31 magnesium alloy substrate [32]. Finally, Cr3C2-NiCr coatings can be used as the solid self-lubricating coatings material in the high-temperature environment by adding solid lubricating materials (such as Mo, BaF2 [33], and graphite [34]). The doped nickel-coated graphite effectively mitigated the brittleness of the Cr3C2-NiCr coatings. The friction coefficient and wear rate of the Cr3C2-NiCr coatings decreased due to the formation of the solid-lubricating film at the friction interface. The Cr3C2-NiCr coatings [35,36,37,38] formed a strong metallurgical bonding with the substrate and exhibited excellent mechanical properties, which reduced the risk of coating delamination or peeling.

2. Preparation and Performance of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets

2.1. Bulk Cr3C2-Ni Cermets (Vacuum Sintering Technology)

Cermets are heterogeneous composites materials which are composed of metals or alloys with one or more ceramic phases. Among them, the metal bonding phases are mainly chromium, cobalt, nickel, iron, molybdenum, and other high-melting-point metals. Ceramic hard phases are mainly alumina [39], titanium carbide [40], tungsten carbide [41], chromium carbide [42], silicon nitride, and other high-hardness refractory metal oxides, carbides, and nitrides. Table 1 shows the mechanical properties of some common ceramic particles.
These ceramic particles had advantages and disadvantages, which can be selected according to different uses in engineering applications. For example, tungsten carbide ceramic particles were well combined with metal bonding. But the high-temperature stability was poor compared to alumina and titanium carbide ceramic particles, which can be used in room temperature wear conditions; alumina and titanium carbide ceramic particles possessed good high-temperature stability and can be used in high-temperature wear conditions. The thermal expansion coefficient of chromium carbide ceramic particle was significantly higher than that of other cermets and was similar to that of steel (12 × 10−6·°C−1) [50], which can be used to manufacture various wear-resistant precision measuring tools or molds.
There were three different kinds of chromium carbides [51,52]. Domestic and foreign researchers calculated the Gibbs free energy of three different kinds of chromium carbide from the perspective of thermodynamics [53,54,55], and the results showed that the Gibbs free energy of the three kinds of chromium carbide was negative. The order from small to large was as follows: Cr23C6, Cr7C3, and Cr3C2. From a thermodynamic point of view, the larger the absolute Gibbs free energy of the three kinds of chromium carbide, the easier it is to generate. Therefore, Cr23C6 was the easiest to generate, followed by Cr7C3 and Cr3C2. This was also consistent with the research results of Pirso [56] and other scholars.
The most commonly used of these three kinds of chromium carbides was Cr3C2. Cr3C2 ceramic particles possessed high hardness and compressive strength and excellent resistance to high-temperature oxidation and wear. The crystal structures of the chromium carbide ceramic hard phases and the metal bonding phase Ni [57,58,59] were orthorhombic crystal system and face-centered cubic crystal system, respectively.
In order to improve the strength and toughness of chromium carbide ceramic composites [60,61,62], domestic and foreign scholars have carried out much research and exploration. Some scholars used ultrafine powder to prepare chromium carbide ceramic composite materials. But their effects were not ideal, mainly because the ultrafine powder had large activity, which was easy to adsorb oxygen. During the sintering process, the C element in chromium carbide was easy to react with oxygen, resulting in the carbon-poor zone in the matrix and the formation of Cr23C6. The carbon-poor chromium carbide was brittle. As a result, the bending strength of the material decreased sharply [63], and the ultra-fine powder was easy to grow in the sintering process. Even in the solid phase sintering stage, the ceramic grain growth process occurred, and the phenomenon of local grain growth was easy to occur [64], which was of great harm to the chromium carbide ceramic composite. Some scholars also used new molding technology and sintering technology to prepare high-performance chromium carbide ceramic composite materials, such as hot isostatic pressing process [65]. However, the new process was not perfect, and the preparation cost was high at this stage.
Juhani [20] et al. used Cr, C, and Ni as raw material powder to prepare a chromium carbide ceramic composite using reaction sintering. Chromium carbide ceramic particles were generated in situ during the sintering process, which effectively improved the microstructure of the chromium carbide ceramic composite and significantly improved the mechanical properties of the material. The results showed that when the ratio of Cr to C was 6:1, only Cr3C2 phase existed in the ceramic particles in the microstructure. However, when the ratio of Cr to C was 8:1, the ceramic particles were mainly in the Cr7C3 phase. Compared with the samples sintered using a hot press, the samples sintered using vacuum sintering without pressure had a more uniform microstructure, higher density, and better mechanical properties.
Pirso [56] et al. used traditional process and reactive sintering process, respectively, to prepare chromium-carbide-based ceramic composite materials. The traditional sintering process used Cr3C2 and Ni powder as raw materials, while the reactive sintering process used Cr, C, and Ni as raw materials. At the same time, scholars compared the microstructural and mechanical properties of the materials under the two process conditions. The results showed that the microstructure of the reactive sintered sample was more uniform. The grain size of the ceramic particle was obviously reduced, and the mechanical properties of the material were increased.
Hussainova [19] et al. prepared chromium carbide matrix ceramic composite materials using the traditional sintering process and reactive sintering process, and compared the erosion wear and abrasive wear properties of the samples under two different sintering process conditions. The test results showed that the chromium carbide matrix ceramic composite prepared using reaction sintering possessed better resistance to erosion wear and wear resistance. At the same time, the wear resistance raised distinctly with the increase in the binder phase content. When the binder content was 30 wt.%, the erosion and wear resistance of the reaction-sintered Cr composites was 25% higher than that of the traditional sintering process, and the wear resistance was 45% higher. When the binder content was 10 wt.%, the erosion resistance and abrasive wear resistance of the reaction-sintered chromium carbide matrix ceramics were 12% higher and 15% higher, respectively.
According to the direct section morphology of Cr carbide ceramic composite prepared by reaction sintering, they found that there are obvious micro-cracks in the subsurface surface of Cr carbide ceramic composite after abrasive wear, which will lead to the breakage and spalling of ceramic particles. This is also the main wear mechanism in the abrasive wear process of Cr carbide ceramic composites. Compared to the chromium carbide ceramic composite prepared using the traditional sintering process, the microstructure of the reactive sintering sample was more uniform and the grain size of the ceramic particles was significantly refined. The hardness, bending strength, and fracture toughness of the material were significantly improved. In addition, the bonding strength between the ceramic particles and the bonding phase was also improved, which significantly reduced the fracture and spalling of the ceramic particles during the wear process. Thus, the wear properties of the material were effectively improved.
The traditional powder metallurgy method (ball milling, die pressing, and sintering) involves directly mixing Cr3C2 with Ni powder, followed by ball milling, shaping, and sintering. The advantages are the simple process and low equipment requirements, making it suitable for laboratory research. But the disadvantages are coarse Cr3C2 particles (10–20 μm), weak interfacial bonding, and low flexural strength (~410 MPa), which hinder the industrial application of high-performance bulk materials.
The in situ reaction sintering method uses Cr powder, C powder, and Ni powder as raw materials. After ball milling and mixing, high-temperature sintering generates the Cr3C2 phase. The advantages are high interfacial bonding strength, fine and uniform grains (optimized flexural strength exceeds 410 MPa), low cost, and suitability for large-scale production of bulk materials. But the disadvantages are the strict control of sintering temperature and raw material composition (requiring 1275 °C vacuum sintering) and poor process stability.
In our past studies [66,67,68,69,70], the microstructure, mechanical properties, high-temperature oxidation resistance, and friction and wear properties of Cr3C2-Ni composites were prepared using a carbonization reaction sintering method. The results showed that the composite exhibited the best mechanical properties when the Ni content was 20 wt.% and its bending strength was about 1000 MPa. At the same time, the interface of Cr3C2 and Ni had no obvious impurities and possessed a good matching relationship. Due to the mutual diffusion of Cr and Ni elements, the interface formed a good metallurgical bond. At room temperature up to 400 °C, the wear mechanism of Cr3C2-Ni composites was mainly abrasive wear, accompanied by a certain amount of oxidation wear. Under conditions between 600 °C and 800 °C, oxidation intensified with the increase in temperature, and the wear mechanism of the material was mainly oxidative wear (as shown in Figure 1).
In order to further reduce the grain size of the ceramic phase in the Cr3C2-Ni composite material and thus improve the mechanical, friction, and wear properties of the composite material, we found that a certain amount of Cr7C3 phase was generated after doping 1.0 wt.% Mo element [25,69,70]. The grain size of the ceramic phase of the composite material was reduced to 5–10 μm. The bending strength of the material can be increased by 20% (about 1200 MPa). Grain refinement enhanced the hardness and strength of Cr3C2-Ni cermets through the Hall–Petch effect. The reduction in grain size of the Cr3C2 hard phase improved the overall hardness, thereby increasing the material’s resistance to abrasive wear. Additionally, grain refinement reduced porosity and minimized surface defects (such as cracks and pores), which decreased the penetration paths for corrosive media and consequently improved the overall corrosion resistance.
In addition, 1.0 wt.% of alloying element Mo can significantly increase the content of Cr in the Ni phase, and only a dense Cr2O3 oxide layer was formed after the high-temperature oxidation of the composite. At the same time, doping with the Mo element can also significantly reduce the depth of crack propagation and improve the wear surface morphology and surface roughness of the Cr3C2-Ni composite (as shown in Figure 2). MoO3 formed by a reaction during high-temperature wear played a certain lubricating role, thus effectively reducing the friction coefficient and mass wear rate of the Cr3C2-Ni composite. Furthermore, the friction and wear properties of the composites were effectively improved.

2.2. Cr3C2-NiCr Coatings

Cr3C2-NiCr is a kind of excellent high-temperature material, which can be used in thermal spray, laser cladding, and overlaying industry. The NiCr phase possessed strong corrosion resistance and high-temperature oxidation resistance. It played a role in bonding and making up for defects in the Cr3C2-NiCr coatings. The Cr3C2 phase possessed excellent wear resistance and corrosion resistance. It was one of the strongest oxidation-resistant carbides that is widely used in metal surface engineering. Therefore, Cr3C2-NiCr coating was suitable for parts that operated in high-temperature and corrosive environments, such as chemical seals, high-temperature molds, and turbine blades.

2.2.1. Plasma Spray Technology

The impurity and oxide content in plasma sprayed coatings was less, and the coatings were denser, thicker, which possessed better corrosion and thermal insulation properties. Van [71] et al. successfully fabricated Cr3C2-25NiCr coatings on 410 stainless steel substrates using atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) technology with systematically varied spraying parameters. The study comprehensively investigated the coating characteristics, including porosity, microhardness, adhesion strength, and corrosion resistance, in correlation with different spraying conditions. XRD analysis revealed a significant phase transformation during the deposition process, where the original Cr3C2 phase from the feedstock powder decomposed into Cr7C3 and Cr23C6 crystalline phases. This phase evolution was attributed to the high-temperature exposure inherent to the plasma spraying process. Notably, the absence of detectable Cr3C2 diffraction peaks suggested that only trace amounts of this primary phase remained in the final coating structure. Electrochemical characterization using potentiodynamic polarization testing combined with salt spray corrosion evaluations demonstrated that coatings produced under optimized spraying parameters exhibited superior corrosion resistance compared to other parameter combinations.
Ghosh [72] et al. conducted a comprehensive investigation into the impact of plasma-sprayed Cr3C2-Ni-Cr coatings on the high-temperature oxidation behavior of 2.25 Cr-1Mo steel. Their analysis revealed that the coated specimens exhibited a well-adhered oxide scale, free from cracks and spallations. The study demonstrated that both coated and uncoated specimens followed an approximately parabolic growth rate during high-temperature oxidation, with only minor deviations observed. The enhanced oxidation resistance in the presence of the coating was primarily attributed to two key factors: the formation of a protective Cr2O3 layer, and a significant alteration in the scale growth mechanism, shifting from outer cation migration to inner anion migration.
Li [73,74] et al. fabricated a Cr3C2-NiCr/NiAl coating on a CuCo2Be alloy using the plasma spraying technique. Their study focused on investigating the formation mechanism, microstructure, and high-temperature friction and wear behavior of the Cr3C2-NiCr/NiAl coating. In a related study, Mou [75] et al. explored the quality control of a NiCr-Cr3C2-hBN@Ni coating deposited on a thin-walled GH4169 alloy surface via plasma spraying. By simulating and optimizing the spraying process, they achieved a coating with uniform thickness and minimal substrate warpage, demonstrating the effectiveness of their approach in maintaining structural integrity and coating consistency.
Babu [76] et al. conducted a comprehensive investigation into the microstructural characteristics, mechanical properties, and electrochemical behavior of atmospheric plasma-sprayed Cr3C2-NiCr coatings, which were utilized as erosion- and corrosion-resistant materials in gas turbine seal structures. To elucidate the electrochemical response and corrosion degradation mechanisms of these plasma-sprayed coatings, open circuit potential measurements and linear potentiodynamic polarization studies were performed in an artificial seawater environment. Their findings revealed that the corrosion resistance of the coatings was significantly influenced by factors such as coating type, crack distribution, and porosity levels.

2.2.2. High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel Spray Technology

High-velocity oxygen fuel spray technology can generate high-speed flames, which can make the sprayed particles fly at a very fast speed and significantly reduce the flight time. At the same time, the temperature of the heat source can ensure that the sprayed particles can obtain very high kinetic energy without being excessively heated. Under the influence of these aspects, it can be ensured that the oxidation level of the coating prepared using high-velocity oxygen fuel spray technology was low. In addition, the surface quality was high, the deposition efficiency was high, and the porosity rate was low.
Ozkan [77] et al. explored the effects of various damage mechanisms, including oxidation, hot corrosion, and wear, on Cr3C2-NiCr hard-metal coatings applied to stainless steel substrates under varying temperatures and durations. The SEM micrographs and elemental mapping analyses revealed that the Cr3C2-NiCr coatings were uniformly deposited onto the stainless steel substrates using the high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) technique, achieving a consistent thickness of 220–240 μm. Additionally, the oxidation layer formed at the interface was observed to thicken in a homogeneous and compact manner. Notably, the coating exhibited no evidence of cracking or voids, even after prolonged exposure to an oxidation temperature of 850 °C.
Sauceda [78] et al. investigated the impact of projected application parameters on Cr3C2-20 (Ni20Cr) coatings deposited on AISI 4140 steel using the high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) technique. It was determined that coatings with great thickness, low porosity, and great hardness, ideal for the recovery of parts, can be achieved from a F/O ratio of 0.45 and a powder flow, with the system feeder rotating at 12 rpm, applied to a substrate with a roughness of R-a = 18 μm, combined with a spray gun speed of 5 mm/s. To further enhance the microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of the coatings, Alroy et al. [79] conducted post-deposition heat treatments. Their results demonstrated that the careful selection of process parameters and heat treatment conditions can significantly improve the sliding wear resistance of Cr3C2-25NiCr coatings.
Matthews et al. conducted systematic studies on the high-temperature oxidation [11,12] and high-velocity erosion [80,81] mechanisms of Cr3C2-NiCr thermal spray coatings. Their work successfully bridged the knowledge gap regarding the high-temperature erosion–oxidation behavior of Cr3C2-NiCr coatings under prolonged simulated turbine conditions. The proposed erosion–oxidation mechanism revealed that the carbide and Cr3C2-NiCr phase interfaces were preferentially oxidized. An internal oxidation front advanced into the coating ahead of the slower erosive mass loss front at the surface. Additionally, carbide nucleation during heat treatment reduced the chromium concentration in the Ni alloy matrix. Consequently, the oxidation mechanism of the composite coating transitioned from being chromium-dominated to one characteristic of NiCr alloys.
To enhance the high-temperature oxidation performance of remanufactured coatings, Du et al. [82,83,84] developed a novel Cr3C2-NiCrCoMo (NCC) coating featuring a modified multielement alloy adhesive phase. In comparison to the conventional Cr3C2-NiCr (NC) coating, the newly designed NCC coatings demonstrated a reduced oxidation rate, superior oxidation resistance, and improved interface compatibility between the oxide scale and the coating. The oxidation mechanism of the Cr3C2-NiCrCoMo coating was illustrated in Figure 3. The enhanced oxidation resistance was primarily attributed to the formation of multicomponent composite oxide scales within the NCC coatings. These scales increased the density and stability of the oxide layer while effectively inhibiting the diffusion of metal ions and oxygen.
Recently, researchers have incorporated solid lubricants into Cr3C2-NiCr coatings to enhance their tribological performance. Mou et al. [85] investigated the influence of hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) content and particle size on the microstructure, mechanical properties, and tribological behavior of NiCr-Cr3C2-hBN coatings. Their findings revealed that the coating containing 3 wt% hBN with a particle size of 1–2 μm exhibited the most favorable mechanical and tribological properties. Additionally, the coating with 3 wt% hBN (15–45 μm) demonstrated improved performance when its cohesive strength was enhanced by optimizing the wettability of hBN.

2.2.3. Laser Cladding Technology

Compared with the thermal spraying and surfacing welding methods, the application of laser cladding technology [86,87] is more diverse and extensive. The coatings with different performance requirements can be prepared based on the variety of environments. In addition, the thermal impact area of the workpiece prepared by laser cladding technology is small, and the deformation of the workpiece is also small. The laser cladding technology can carry out partial repair and remanufacturing of parts to achieve the purpose of saving energy and resources. Therefore, laser cladding technology has gradually become an important technology to improve the surface wear resistance and corrosion resistance of workpiece materials [88,89].
Venkatesh et al. [90] studied the microstructure of laser-coated chromium carbide (CrxCy)-NiCrMoNb coating on the surface of SA516 steel. The raw material powder contained both Cr3C2 and Cr7C3. But it was found that only Cr7C3 existed in the cladding layer, indicating that Cr3C2 was decarburized to form Cr3C2 during the laser cladding process. There were primary dendrites Cr3C2 and Ni-rich FCC metallic phases among the dendrites. Further laser cladding annealing and furnace melting of the initial powder confirmed that Cr3C2 was the dominant and stable carbide phase in the multi-component system. With the increase in laser power and scanning speed, the content of carbide in the laser cladding layer decreased gradually. The increase in scanning speed increased the cooling rate and decreased the secondary arm spacing of Cr3C2 dendrites. The hardness of the cladding layer raised with the increase in carbide content and decreased with the decrease in dendrite arm spacing.
Wang et al. [91] prepared Cr3C2-NiCr coating on the surface of a single crystal superalloy. A small amount of Cr element was added to increase the diffusion of Si and C elements. But the Cr element would have a bad effect on the substrate. It was found that different precipitates were distributed in different regions. Lou et al. [92] studied the microstructure and formation mechanisms of laser cladding Cr3C2-NiCr coating. In addition, the effects of laser scanning speed on the microstructure, friction, and corrosion properties of the cladding layer were also studied.
Cao et al. [93] prepared the laser cladding Cr3C2-enhanced Ni60Ag self-lubricating composite coating on the copper alloy. The formation and uneven distribution of coarse Cr7C3 columnar dendrites led to macroscopic cracks and severe phase segregation in monolayer composite coatings. However, the preparation of a NiCr intermediate layer effectively inhibited the formation of defects and the uniform distribution of Cr7C3 and Ag fine dendrites. Ni3B and Ni31Si12 ceramics exhibited preferential solidification along the Cr7C3 dendrite boundary. The γ-Ni and Cr7C3 phases showed obvious structural indices in the polar diagram.
Wu et al. [94] used laser technology to prepare Cr3C2-NiCr composite coatings on the surface of H13 hot work die steel with laser powers of 1200, 1400, and 1600 W, respectively. The friction and wear properties of Cr3C2-NiCr composite coatings at 600 °C were analyzed using a high-temperature wear test. In addition, the wear mechanism was discussed. The Cr3C2-NiCr composite coating was mainly composed of Cr7C3, Cr3C2 hard phase, and NiCr adhesive phase. The average bonding strength was 46.25N, and the metallurgical bonding was formed at the coating interface. The average friction coefficients of the Cr3C2-NiCr coatings prepared at 1200, 1400, and 1600 W were 0.65, 0.34, and 0.67, respectively. The corresponding wear volumes were 111.3, 101.1, and 143.2, respectively. The wear mechanism of the wear surface presented oxidation wear and abrasive wear at 1400 W power.

3. Application of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets

3.1. Seals

Ceramic seal rings, particularly those fabricated from silicon nitride (Si3N4), are widely employed to prevent liquid or gas leakage in dynamic machine components, especially in environments where metallic materials are unsuitable due to susceptibility to rust or chemical attack from acidic or alkaline media. These seals are commonly utilized in systems involving the circulation of water or aqueous solutions, such as refrigeration systems and pumps, where resistance to high-temperatures is essential. Owing to their superior hardness, ceramics are an ideal choice for applications involving high specific sealing loads or operating fluids containing abrasive particles [95].
Chromium-based ceramic coatings are applied to seal rings to enhance their performance under extreme operating conditions, including high pressure, elevated temperatures, and abrasive environments. The formation of a protective Cr2O3 scale, which mitigates high-temperature corrosion caused by alkali salts, significantly contributes to the durability of the seal rings. Furthermore, the incorporation of chromium coatings in mechanical seals has been demonstrated to improve the stability and wear resistance of the seal end faces, thereby extending the operational lifespan of the mechanical seals [96].

3.2. Ball Valve and Seats

Chromium-based ceramic coatings have gained significant popularity in industrial applications due to their outstanding properties, particularly in challenging environments such as those encountered in ball valves and valve seats. Cr3C2-25NiCr coatings are extensively utilized in thermal power generation, where ball valves are installed on pipelines handling media temperatures as high as approximately 600 °C. To ensure robust high-temperature oxidation resistance and wear resistance under such extreme conditions, researchers applied a hardened layer to critical components of the ball valve, including the ball core, valve seat, and other sealing elements [97].
In the electric power and metallurgy industries, ball valves installed on pipelines frequently operate with media temperatures reaching up to 600 °C, making key components such as the ball core and valve seat susceptible to damage and failure. To address this, researchers deposited a hardened layer on these critical parts to enhance their high-temperature oxidation resistance and wear resistance. The Cr3C2-25NiCr coating, characterized by a remarkably low porosity of only 0.34%, comprises a Cr3C2 hard phase, a NiCr bonding phase, and a minor Cr7C3 phase. This unique composition provides exceptional resistance to high-temperature friction and wear, ensuring prolonged durability and reliability in demanding operational conditions [98].

3.3. High-Temperature Furnace Tube Wall

High-temperature furnace walls play a crucial role in heat treatment processes, where metals undergo heating and cooling cycles to alter their physical and mechanical properties. Chromium-based ceramic coatings have garnered significant attention for their application in high-temperature furnace walls due to their exceptional properties, including superior high-temperature oxidation resistance, wear resistance, and thermal stability [99].
The high-temperature oxidation resistance of chromium-based coatings is a pivotal factor in their use for furnace walls. Research has shown that chromium coatings with a (200) preferred orientation can withstand steam oxidation at temperatures as high as 1200 °C for up to 12 h. The mechanism behind this steam oxidation resistance has been elucidated, revealing that the preferred orientation influences the grain structure and facilitates the formation of protective oxide layers. In industrial boilers, chromium-based coatings have demonstrated exceptional protection against high-temperature corrosion and slagging. The presence of chromium in these coatings promotes the formation of a protective Cr3C2 scale, which acts as a barrier, preventing corrosive species from diffusing to and attacking the underlying metal surface. High-chromium-content coatings, such as Ni-50Cr (at.%), have been particularly effective in providing superior corrosion protection [100].
Cr3C2-NiCr coatings are highly valued for their high hardness and low abrasion resistance, making them ideal for protecting furnace walls from wear. These coatings exhibit a low friction coefficient, which minimizes mechanical surface friction and enhances wear resistance, especially under high-temperature conditions. At elevated temperatures, Cr3C2-NiCr coatings form a smooth oxide film that acts as a non-plastic medium, preventing direct contact between the coating surface and the counterface, thereby further reducing the friction coefficient [101].

3.4. High-Temperature Molds

High-temperature molds, such as those made from S136 (a medium-carbon and high-chromium martensitic stainless steel), are widely used in the injection mold industry due to their excellent mechanical properties and anti-corrosion performance [102]. However, extremely high local temperatures can increase thermal stress and activate diffusion or chemical reactions, leading to material degradation and embrittlement [103].
Cr3C2-NiCr coatings provide high hardness and low abrasion resistance, effectively protecting mold surfaces from wear. These coatings also offer excellent resistance to chemical corrosion, forming a protective layer that prevents the oxidation and corrosion of the base material. Cr3C2-NiCr coatings have been explored for usage in high-temperature applications due to their exceptional thermal stability, making them suitable for industries such as nuclear power plants and refineries. Additionally, coatings like Cr3C2-NiCr reduce friction and improve release properties, enabling faster cycle times and higher production rates. By protecting the mold surface from wear, corrosion, and erosion, these coatings can extend the mold’s lifespan significantly [104].

4. Outlook

The high-temperature wear resistance of Cr3C2-Ni ceramics is comprehensively influenced by microstructure, bonding-phase properties, and process-induced defects. Using optimization strategies such as alloying, advanced processing techniques, and surface engineering, their reliability under extreme operating conditions can be significantly enhanced. Future research needs to further explore multi-component composite coatings and intelligent protection technologies to meet the urgent demand for high-performance wear-resistant materials in aerospace, energy, and related fields.
In cobalt-chromium-based metallic biomaterials [105], chromium carbide (Cr3C2) plays a critical role in enhancing implant durability and safety within physiological environments through three mechanisms: wear resistance enhancement, corrosion inhibition, and mechanical support. It serves as a key factor in achieving a service life exceeding 20 years for artificial joints and similar medical devices. Future studies should focus on the nanoscale regulation of chromium carbide and its integration with bioactive coatings to address increasingly complex physiological environmental challenges.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Writing—review and editing, W.Z.; Writing—original draft preparation and Validation, Y.W.; Software and Supervision, L.S.; Investigation and Data curation, J.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Natural Science Basic Research Plan in Shaanxi Province of China (Program No. 2023-JC-YB-458), the Key Research and Development Program of Shaanxi (Program No. 2022QCY-LL-58).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Microstructure and wear mechanism of the Cr3C2-Ni composite: (a) microstructure and (b1–b5) wear mechanism [70].
Figure 1. Microstructure and wear mechanism of the Cr3C2-Ni composite: (a) microstructure and (b1–b5) wear mechanism [70].
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Figure 2. Wear surface morphology of Cr3C2-Ni composites at different temperatures: (a1–a4, b1–b4,e1–e4) 0 wt.% Mo and (c1–c4, d1–d4,f1–f4) 1 wt.% Mo [70].
Figure 2. Wear surface morphology of Cr3C2-Ni composites at different temperatures: (a1–a4, b1–b4,e1–e4) 0 wt.% Mo and (c1–c4, d1–d4,f1–f4) 1 wt.% Mo [70].
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Figure 3. The oxidation mechanism of Cr3C2-NiCrCoMo coating [82].
Figure 3. The oxidation mechanism of Cr3C2-NiCrCoMo coating [82].
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Table 1. The detailed mechanical properties of some frequently used ceramic materials.
Table 1. The detailed mechanical properties of some frequently used ceramic materials.
Ceramic ParticleMelting Point/°CDensity/g·mm−3Thermal Expansion
Coefficient/10−6·°C−1		Elasticity
Modulus/GPa		Hardness/HV
Al2O3 [43,44]20543.958.43601800~2200
TiC [45,46]31404.937.74302000~3000
WC [47,48]287015.633.87102000~3000
Cr3C2 [42,49]18906.6810.34101600~2000
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Zhai, W.; Wei, Y.; Sun, L.; Lv, J. Review of Preparation, Performance, and Application of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets. Coatings 2025, 15, 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040393

AMA Style

Zhai W, Wei Y, Sun L, Lv J. Review of Preparation, Performance, and Application of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets. Coatings. 2025; 15(4):393. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040393

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhai, Wenyan, Yujing Wei, Liang Sun, and Jiaao Lv. 2025. "Review of Preparation, Performance, and Application of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets" Coatings 15, no. 4: 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040393

APA Style

Zhai, W., Wei, Y., Sun, L., & Lv, J. (2025). Review of Preparation, Performance, and Application of Chromium-Carbide-Based Cermets. Coatings, 15(4), 393. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15040393

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