1. Introduction
Potable water access is a fundamental right of humans as it is crucial to meet their basic needs, such as drinking, cooking, personal hygiene, and sanitation [
1]. Access to potable water is defined as “the ease of having a consistent supply of drinkable water close to the point of demand, that is, within everyone’s reach: at home, at school, at work, or in public spaces” [
2]. Access to potable water is determined by how easily the residents of a community can reach a water point source. Usually, a water point source is considered accessible if it is within a 30-min walk or less than 2 km away [
3]. Access to potable water remains a significant global challenge despite the United Nations’ (UN) efforts through Sustainable Development Goal Six. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) report by the UN indicates that approximately 2.2 billion people around the world lack easy access to potable water [
4], with approximately 400 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa lacking access to basic drinking water [
5,
6]. The UN report further predicts that approximately 700 million people will be displaced by 2030 if potable water access is not improved [
4].
In Sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water remains a challenge according to previous research [
7]. For instance, Smiley [
8] reported that primary water sources were located far away from homes, with some people in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania spending over 30 min queuing to access water. Similarly, Smits et al. [
9] found that residents in Ward 16 of Bushbuckridge Local Municipality of South Africa experienced long wait times of over 4 h when collecting water. Díaz-Alcaide et al. [
10] reported that people in the Centre Nord region of Burkina Faso traveled up to 500 m to access water.
This research focuses on Sibi in Ghana, which, like other Sub-Saharan African countries, experiences inadequate water access. Over the years, the government of Ghana has made efforts to address this by commissioning the Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) and formulating a National Water Policy to improve potable water access. However, these efforts have not yielded the expected results, and access to potable water is still a significant challenge in many communities in Ghana [
11]. Previous studies showed that access to potable water is a major challenge in many Ghanaian communities. A report by UNICEF indicated that one out of every ten people spends more than 30 min to access potable water sources in Ghana [
11]. Mahama et al. [
12] reported that 97.7% of people in Accra, Ghana’s capital city, who traveled outside of their homes to obtain water spent a maximum of 30 min collecting it. Peprah, Oduro-Ofori, and Asante-Owusu [
13] also reported that most residents in Awutu-Sanya East Municipality in Ghana accessed water from unhygienic sources such as rivers and unprotected wells. As a result, 80–90% of the sampled households in the Awutu-Sanya East Municipality waited in long queues daily to access potable water for domestic purposes [
13]. Adjakloe [
14] found that the Maryera community in Ghana spent an average of one hour to obtain water for their households.
The focus of the aforementioned water access studies in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana, was primarily on urban areas, leading to a limited understanding of the challenges faced by rural communities in obtaining water. In addition, most of these studies have relied mainly on the social dimensions of water access, without considering the spatial locations and accessibility of water sources [
8,
12,
13,
14]. Hence, this research uses both social and spatial dimensions to examine water access and analyze how insufficient water access impacts the livelihoods of rural residents in Ghana. This is a critical issue that requires attention as access to potable water can significantly affect rural livelihoods [
15], such as agricultural and domestic activities.
As defined by Chambers and Conway, livelihood encompasses how people live, including their access to food, income, and assets [
16]. Access to safe and drinkable water is a crucial element of both tangible and intangible assets [
17] for individuals. For households, having sufficient access to potable water can contribute to a healthier lifestyle, time and expenditure savings, empowerment, food security, and increased productivity and income [
2,
6,
18,
19]. These factors are all critical components of rural development and poverty reduction. Conversely, inadequate access to safe water resources can decrease labor productivity and increase the cost of water access, resulting in negative outcomes for economically disadvantaged populations [
20,
21]. The household water management strategies employed to regulate domestic water usage play significant roles in determining the availability of the water supply, as they directly impact the aggregated demand for water resources [
22]. Jonah, Maitho, and Omware’s [
23] research in Nakuru, Kenya indicated that potable water availability, quality, and affordability determined the community’s level of household assets, thereby impacting the community’s livelihoods. They reported that the majority of the population in Nakuru was affected by water quality issues as most people suffered from diarrhea, dysentery, and amoebiasis after using the water. The ill health of these people as a result of the lack of quality potable water affected their livelihoods; the health status affects the ability of an individual to carry out their livelihood activities and access sources of income [
24].
The aforementioned situations are not different from that of the Sibi community in Ghana. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the impacts on households’ livelihoods due to difficulties in accessing potable water in Sibi and accordingly give policy recommendations. Specifically, the study maps the available water sources, assesses the level of access to potable water, investigates the effects of potable water non-access on livelihoods, and determines the coping and management strategies used by households in Sibi.
2. Study Area
The study area of this research was Sibi, which is located in the Nkwanta North District of Ghana. Sibi is made up of three communities: Sibi Hill Top, Sibi Central, and Sibi Jato-Kparikpare. Sibi is located between latitude 8°35′00″ N and 8°38′00″ N and longitude 0°13′30″ E and 0°14′35″ E (
Figure 1). It is located at the center of the Nkwanta North District of Ghana. The Nkwanta North District shares boundaries with the Nkwanta South District to the south, Nanumba South District to the north, Kpandai District to the west, and the Republic of Togo to the east (
Figure 1). This study was conducted in 2021. The population growth rate of this district was 2.3% [
25], and, based on this, the population of Sibi was projected to be 10,687 in 2021 and the projected number of household heads was 1467. Currently, the population of the community is estimated to reach approximately 15,000 [
26]. The Nkwanta North District forms part of the tropical climatic zone, characterized by double maxima rainfall (i.e., between April and July and between August and September). The dry season, however, is between November and March. Average annual rainfall ranges from 922 mm to 1874 mm. This district is endowed with several rivers and streams, the most important of which are the Oti and Kpassa Rivers, which flow from Togo [
26]. Despite having a piped water system, it is evidenced that the residents of Sibi still travel long distances to neighboring towns to access domestic water, particularly during the dry season, when the water source for pipe systems and surface groundwater dries up [
27]. Residents in Sibi usually use walking as their main mode of transport to water sources.
5. Discussion
The study findings indicate that access to potable water in the three communities is influenced by various factors, including the availability and efficiency of water sources, the distance to water sources, the cost of accessing water, and the coping and management strategies adopted by households. These factors have significant implications for the livelihoods of the residents, as shown in
Figure 3.
The availability of water sources plays a crucial role in determining access to potable water. Multiple water sources, including rivers, streams, dams, hand-dug wells, boreholes, and public standpipes, are identified in this study. These water sources are not efficient because most of them only flow seasonally. These findings align well with previous research conducted in various communities in Ghana. For example, research done by Jeil, Abass, and Ganle [
53] in the Tatale-Sanguli district of Ghana’s northern region found that boreholes and streams/dugouts served as the main water sources for the local residents. Stream and dam water sources are easily accessible by residents. However, the quality of the water in the stream and dam is highly questionable, as both animals and humans use these sources. Jeil, Abass, and Ganle also found that the boreholes were not easily accessible by their study respondents as compared to streams and dams. Water sources included unprotected dug wells; surface sources like rivers, dams, and streams; vendors supplying water via small tanks or tanker trucks; and bottled water [
54]. This is similar to the situation in Sibi, as our findings indicate that the boreholes and standpipes in the Sibi community are not reliable and the residents mostly rely on unprotected water sources such as streams and dams. These findings, coupled with the previous studies, suggest that these sources are commonly relied on in Ghanaian communities.
Households generally travel a distance of less than 1000 m (one kilometer) to access water sources within the community. However, it is observed that, during the dry season, residents are compelled to walk over 10 km to obtain water. This highlights the challenges faced by communities in accessing water, particularly during periods of water scarcity. To contextualize these findings, it is pertinent to refer to existing standards on water accessibility. Howard et al. [
55] propose that access to water is deemed satisfactory when the distance traveled to access water does not exceed one kilometer. Similarly, the Ghana Water Company Limited [
56], the regulatory body responsible for the water supply in Ghana, stipulates that if the target of providing water within household premises is not achieved, the maximum distance that an individual should travel to access water should not exceed 200 m. The findings of this study marginally align with these standards, indicating that 93% of households travel less than one kilometer in Sibi, Ghana. Furthermore, the study’s findings are consistent with the research conducted by Misati [
57] in Kisii County, Kenya. Misati’s study reveals that the majority of water sources (92%) are located within a kilometer of households. This similarity suggests that communities in both Ghana and Kenya encounter comparable challenges regarding the proximity of water sources, emphasizing the importance of addressing distance-related barriers to water access in various contexts. Because of the data and resource limitations, we were not able to gauge the water supply capacity of water intake sites. The water supply capacity is also important in assessing the water demand. We plan to address this issue in a future study when such data are available.
The affordability of water access is a critical consideration in ensuring equitable and sustainable water access. The cost of accessing potable water affects households’ financial resources and can potentially create disparities in access, particularly for economically disadvantaged communities. The annual cost of potable water for respondents ranged from Gh¢15.67 (US
$2.59) to Gh¢1318.03 (US
$218.27) in a year. The study findings are not significantly different from the UNICEF/WHO [
58] report on WASH, which suggests that households in Ghana spend an average of Gh¢138.9 (US
$23) per capita per year on water. The majority of the respondents considered surface water sources as the cheapest sources as they had no monetary cost to them. This could be why most households choose to access surface water for domestic usage. This finding is similar to the situation in some urban communities in Ghana, as previous studies indicated that households in the Ga West Municipality of Ghana accessed water from surface water sources for domestic usage because these water sources were the cheapest for them [
14].
The United Nations [
3] and the Sphere Project [
59] specify that for one to have physical access to water, the collection time should not exceed 30 min. The collection time in this study is beyond the United Nations’ standard as the maximum average waiting time to access water in Sibi communities is more than 2 h. The longer collection time may be attributed to inadequate water from the available water sources. This situation is similar to that of other communities in Ghana and Africa. Adjakloe [
14] found that an average of one (1) hour was spent accessing water for household use in the Maryera community in Ghana. Peprah et al. [
13] found that the irregular flow of water from pipes resulted in long queues, leading to longer waiting times to access water in the Awutu-Senya East Municipality of Ghana. Jonah et al. [
23] found that 55.4% of their study respondents spent more than 1 h fetching water. Smits et al. [
9] also found that the waiting time to collect water in Ward 16 of Bushbuckridge Local Municipality of South Africa was more than 4 h. Jonah et al. [
23] further explained that the long queues and waiting times were caused by the non-functionality of the water sources that were shared by many households from different communities.
The main containers for the collection of water were the head pan, Jerry can, and bucket. Women mostly used head pans, while men used Jerry cans to collect water. Drums/tanks, Jerry cans/gallons, clay pots, aluminum pots, and buckets are used to store water. Drums/tanks, Jerry cans/gallons, and clay pots are used by most households in the three communities compared to the other facilities. Misati [
57] also found that most of the Kisii households used Jerry cans to store their water.
This study revealed some of the water usage strategies adopted by households. A reduction in the quantity of water usage for some specific purposes, rainwater harvesting, and reductions in the number of baths per day were some of the most adopted strategies in the three communities. Some respondents also used sachet or bottled water for drinking purposes. These results align with Agyemang’s [
28] research, which also found that households in the Sekyere Kumawu district of Ghana adopted such strategies to manage their water, e.g., using bottled water for drinking purposes, purchasing additional storage facilities, preventing others from using their stored water, and reducing the water quantities used for specific purposes.
Inadequate potable water access has significant impacts on the livelihoods of households. This study revealed that the distance to water sources and the cost of accessing water have significant effects on households’ livelihoods. These findings support Sorenson and colleagues’ research, which found that the distance and cost of fetching water significantly affected the livelihood status of individuals, especially women and children in low-income countries (including Ghana), as it was a time-consuming and physically demanding task that could have adverse effects on health, education, and income [
60].
Surprisingly, waiting times did not have a significant impact on livelihood activities, which is contrary to the Sphere Project’s report [
59], which suggested that longer waiting times reduced water consumption, increased non-potable water usage, and limited time for other activities. This inconsistency may be due to the fact that residents in Sibi are used to long waiting times, knowing that they will eventually obtain water. Additionally, from the personal experience of one of the authors, who lived in the community for over 20 years, it is known that most households engage in tuber cultivation during the rainy season and spend time at water sources during the dry season, when water stress is more prevalent, which increases the waiting time.
Based on the water access challenges faced by the communities in Sibi, we recommend that the local government and authorities collaborate closely with the Ghana Water Company Limited and water and sanitation NGOs to tackle the pressing issue of clean drinking water in the Sibi communities. Through combined resources and expertise, this joint effort could provide a thorough and long-lasting resolution to the water access difficulties. A collaborative task force should be created by the local government and authorities. This task force should comprise representatives from regulatory agencies, community leaders, and local government bodies to formulate a comprehensive plan for water infrastructure development that caters to the needs of the community. Adequate resources should be allocated to implement this plan, and regular water quality testing and enforcement of standards must be prioritized to ensure safe water consumption.
In addition, the Ghana Water Company Limited should initiate community engagement programs and provide technical training for the community members to help in water infrastructure maintenance. It is also recommended that NGOs and aid agencies partner with local community-based organizations to launch hygiene education campaigns and promote safe water storage practices. By allocating resources to capacity-building initiatives that empower local water management and governance structures, international donor organizations and global health entities can support sustainable water infrastructure projects and collaborate with local agencies for monitoring and evaluation. These targeted measures can serve as a transformative model to resolve water access challenges, not only in Sibi but also as a blueprint for global efforts toward equitable water access. Therefore, it is imperative that these recommendations be taken into consideration and implemented for the benefit of the Sibi community and beyond.