Status of Food Security in East and Southeast Asia and Challenges of Climate Change
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. State of Food Security in East and Southeast Asia
2.1. Food Availability
2.1.1. Food Production
Year | Aquaculture | Capture Fishery | Milk | Meat | Eggs |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 87.18 | 40.56 | 52.66 | 114.04 | 39.44 |
2016 | 90.58 | 39.37 | 51.63 | 114.04 | 40.88 |
2017 | 93.51 | 39.18 | 51.32 | 115.66 | 48.00 |
2018 | 94.38 | 39.17 | 51.74 | 118.16 | 48.59 |
2019 | - | - | 53.44 | 107.63 | 50.62 |
2.1.2. Food Trade
2.1.3. Self-Sufficiency Ratio (SSR)
2.2. Access to Food
2.2.1. Consumer Price Index for Food
2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Brunei Darussalam | 99.5 | 99.8 | 101.7 | 101.0 | 103.1 |
Cambodia | 106.4 | 109.9 | 112.6 | 115.2 | 119.2 |
China | 103.7 | 103.5 | 105.5 | 113.2 | 124.2 |
Hong Kong | 103.6 | 104.7 | 109.2 | 120.0 | 129.5 |
Indonesia | 107.3 | 109.3 | 113.8 | 115.4 | 118.7 |
Japan | 102.1 | 102.8 | 104.5 | 104.7 | 105.6 |
Laos | 104.3 | 104.2 | 105.5 | 110.4 | 118.3 |
Macao | 102.9 | 104.5 | 107.3 | 110.6 | 115.6 |
Malaysia | 103.9 | 108.2 | 109.7 | 111.5 | 112.6 |
Mongolia | 98.5 | 102.8 | 110.1 | 121.9 | 131.0 |
Myanmar | 109.4 | 114.2 | 121.8 | 132.7 | 134.1 |
Philippines | 101.6 | 104.7 | 111.9 | 114.2 | 116.9 |
Republic of Korea | 102.3 | 105.8 | 108.7 | 108.8 | 111.1 |
Singapore | 102.3 | 103.6 | 105.0 | 106.2 | 109.0 |
Taiwan * | 105.2 | 104.8 | 105.9 | 107.9 | 108.6 |
Thailand | 101.6 | 101.6 | 102.0 | 104.4 | 105.2 |
Vietnam | 102.4 | 101.3 | 104.5 | 108.8 | 119.5 |
East Asia | 103.0 | 103.5 | 105.6 | 110.2 | 117.1 |
Southeast Asia | 104.3 | 106.2 | 109.8 | 112.2 | 115.4 |
World | 101.9 | 104.1 | 107.1 | 112.0 | 118.0 |
2.2.2. Share of Food Expenditure in GDP
2.3. Stability of Food Supplies
2.3.1. Cereal Import Dependency Ratio
2.3.2. Percentage of Arable Land Equipped for Irrigation
2.4. Food Utilization
2.4.1. Access to Water and Sanitation Facilities
2.4.2. Food Available for Consumption
2.4.3. State of Hunger and Undernourishment
3. Challenges from Climate Change
3.1. Impacts on Food Production Systems
3.2. Impacts on Agricultural Livelihoods
3.3. Climate Change and Nutrition
3.4. Climate Change and Food Policy Making
3.5. The Relationship between Climate Indicators and Food Production: The Case of Rice Production in East and Southeast Asia
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Wheat | Maize | Rice | Barley |
---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 134.12 | 308.54 | 426.81 | 2.25 |
2016 | 134.71 | 310.69 | 426.34 | 1.71 |
2017 | 135.59 | 312.3 | 430.99 | 1.51 |
2018 | 132.83 | 311.62 | 431.38 | 1.39 |
2019 | 135.20 | 315.58 | 418.56 | 1.42 |
Commodity | 2005–2015 Average | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | |
Plant-based food commodities | ||||||||||
Wheat and flour | 1.1 | 391.3 | 0.8 | 347.2 | 0.9 | 396.2 | 1.0 | 428.0 | 1.0 | 466.1 |
Maize | 2.6 | 534.3 | 1.2 | 489.4 | 1.5 | 607.6 | 1.0 | 549.3 | 1.3 | 402.8 |
Rice | 16.3 | 7938.8 | 16.6 | 7847.0 | 21.3 | 9872.1 | 20.6 | 10,606.9 | 18.3 | 9119.4 |
Fruit | 12.2 | 10,455.0 | 14.5 | 18,246.4 | 17.1 | 20,229.5 | 17.0 | 21,474.1 | 15.9 | 24,206.0 |
Vegetables | 9.1 | 9755.1 | 10.4 | 15,650.0 | 11.2 | 16,358.9 | 11.5 | 16,263.6 | 11.8 | 16,204.7 |
Refined sugar | 3.4 | 1596.7 | 5.8 | 2666.1 | 5.1 | 2680.3 | 5.6 | 2488.2 | 5.0 | 1827.9 |
Vegetable Oil | 8.7 | 6469.1 | 43.9 | 31,887.6 | 48.6 | 38,001.3 | 50.2 | 33,578.1 | 48.0 | 29,832.0 |
Animal-based food commodities | ||||||||||
Meat | 2.6 | 5914.5 | 3.5 | 8928.4 | 3.7 | 10,100.8 | 3.8 | 10,170.1 | 3.2 | 8908.6 |
Seafood | 10.2 | 36,835.8 | 11.3 | 45,912.7 | 11.7 | 49,381.1 | 11.79 | 51,559.9 | - | - |
Eggs | 0.6 | 393.1 | 0.2 | 361.9 | 0.3 | 360.1 | 0.3 | 425.3 | 0.3 | 429.6 |
Dairy Products | 0.5 | 1207.3 | 0.6 | 1517.3 | 0.6 | 1789.1 | 0.7 | 2094.8 | 0.7 | 2125.1 |
Commodity | 2005–2015 Average | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | Quantity (Million Tonnes) | Value (Million US$) | |
Plant-based food commodities | ||||||||||
Wheat and flour | 28.0 | 8737.8 | 43.0 | 10,135.2 | 42.8 | 11,652.1 | 41.1 | 11,230.9 | 41.1 | 11,107.6 |
Maize | 38.3 | 9614.7 | 47.0 | 9414.3 | 44.1 | 9069.1 | 49.4 | 10,763.3 | 54.4 | 11,789.3 |
Rice | 6.9 | 3734.8 | 8.4 | 4273.3 | 8.2 | 4139.0 | 10.1 | 5450.8 | 9.2 | 4695.9 |
Fruit | 10.6 | 12,433.9 | 13.1 | 20,053.5 | 14.0 | 21,343.6 | 15.3 | 24,722.3 | 16.7 | 27,650.3 |
Vegetables | 6.9 | 6455.6 | 8.3 | 8941.9 | 8.7 | 9304.9 | 9.2 | 9927.0 | 8.9 | 9906.0 |
Refined sugar | 2.4 | 1188.6 | 4.7 | 2467.5 | 4.0 | 2227.8 | 4.5 | 1963.0 | 3.2 | 1276.3 |
Vegetable Oil | 2.9 | 2663.1 | 14.4 | 12,730.1 | 15.6 | 14,734.5 | 17.0 | 14,687.8 | 20.6 | 15,067.5 |
Animal-based food commodities | ||||||||||
Meat | 8.5 | 22,532.4 | 14.4 | 37,993.6 | 14.5 | 40,804.6 | 15.1 | 44,341.4 | 17.0 | 51,402.9 |
Seafood | 11.8 | 34,459.3 | 12.4 | 40,778.4 | 13.8 | 45,525.2 | 14.2 | 51,431.6 | - | - |
Eggs | 0.3 | 492.7 | 0.3 | 445.8 | 0.3 | 480.4 | 0.3 | 549.5 | 0.4 | 546.0 |
Dairy Products | 3.3 | 9745.4 | 5.1 | 11,553.2 | 5.5 | 14,196.5 | 5.8 | 15,332.5 | 6.2 | 16,469.2 |
Cereals | Fruits | Vegetables | Meat | Eggs | Dairy Products | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rice | Maize | Wheat | |||||||
Brunei Darussalam | 3.0 | 3.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 15.0 | 20.3 | 68.6 | 89.2 | 2.1 |
Cambodia | 104.4 | 107.6 | 103.2 | 0.0 | 113.0 | 99.4 | 92.6 | 99.9 | 40.2 |
Hong Kong SAR | 0.0 | N/A | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.7 | 3.6 | 9.0 | 0.2 | 0.0 |
China | 97.0 | 99.2 | 98.6 | 97.5 | 99.9 | 101.7 | 95.6 | 100.3 | 94.0 |
North Korea | 83.8 | 93.2 | 88.1 | 13.9 | 94.4 | 99.7 | 97.6 | 100.0 | 95.9 |
Indonesia | 87.8 | 97.5 | 97.9 | 0.0 | 98.1 | 94.6 | 94.2 | 100.0 | 79.4 |
Japan | 33.6 | 91.8 | 0.0 | 14.0 | 57.5 | 81.7 | 52.8 | 99.7 | 95.3 |
Laos | 103.7 | 99.3 | 124.3 | 0.0 | 113.9 | 102.3 | 83.5 | 99.7 | 23.0 |
Malaysia | 30.6 | 68.7 | 1.7 | 0.0 | 71.5 | 56.8 | 89.0 | 117.5 | 56.6 |
Mongolia | 71.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 80.6 | 3.7 | 50.8 | 98.5 | 43.9 | 98.9 |
Myanmar | 107.3 | 111.6 | 133.6 | 21.4 | 115.4 | 100.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 99.0 |
Philippines | 74.7 | 87.1 | 92.7 | 0.0 | 127.2 | 96.6 | 81.9 | 99.7 | 3.6 |
South Korea | 26.9 | 91.4 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 75.7 | 89.7 | 65.1 | 99.1 | 92.7 |
Singapore | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 4.9 | 29.2 | 22.0 | 35.2 |
Taiwan | 25.3 | 95.5 | 3.9 | 0.4 | 90.0 | 88.6 | 75.4 | 100.1 | 67.8 |
Thailand | 122.6 | 189.4 | 101.2 | 0.0 | 128.9 | 98.1 | 162.0 | 101.7 | 95.3 |
Vietnam | 86.0 | 122.6 | 34.0 | 0.0 | 113.3 | 100.2 | 95.8 | 100.2 | 82.4 |
East Asia | 90.8 | 98.3 | 88.4 | 90.2 | 98.1 | 100.8 | 89.5 | 99.7 | 93.5 |
Southeast Asia | 90.2 | 111.5 | 78.9 | 0.5 | 111.0 | 95.1 | 96.4 | 100.4 | 81.9 |
World | 100.3 | 99.9 | 100.4 | 100.7 | 100.2 | 100.2 | 101.2 | 100.1 | 99.9 |
East Asia | |||||
2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | |
Cereals * | 1403 | 1421 | 1413 | 1411 | 1421 |
Wheat and products | 526 | 529 | 529 | 532 | 535 |
Rice and products | 781 | 781 | 789 | 781 | 794 |
Maize and products | 64 | 63 | 64 | 64 | 64 |
Fruits ** | 97 | 98 | 99 | 101 | 103 |
Vegetables | 211 | 220 | 223 | 225 | 229 |
Southeast Asia | |||||
2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | |
Cereals * | 1534 | 1546 | 1573 | 1576 | 1574 |
Wheat and products | 163 | 175 | 208 | 205 | 208 |
Rice and products | 1244 | 1237 | 1219 | 1226 | 1221 |
Maize and products | 122 | 128 | 134 | 134 | 140 |
Fruits ** | 94 | 103 | 96 | 94 | 95 |
Vegetables | 53 | 53 | 54 | 54 | 56 |
East Asia | |||||
2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | |
Meat | 433 | 438 | 444 | 449 | 453 |
Eggs | 73 | 76 | 78 | 77 | 78 |
Milk * | 62 | 57 | 56 | 55 | 56 |
Seafood | 60 | 62 | 62 | 63 | 63 |
Southeast Asia | |||||
2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | |
Meat | 186 | 185 | 187 | 188 | 190 |
Eggs | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 |
Milk * | 27 | 28 | 30 | 30 | 31 |
Seafood | 68 | 70 | 72 | 75 | 75 |
Country | 2000 | 2006 | 2012 | 2020 | Change since 2000 (%) | Severity Classification |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
China | 13.6 | 9.5 | <5 | <5 | — | low |
Thailand | 17.8 | 12.3 | 12.7 | 10.2 | −42.7 | moderate |
Mongolia | 30.1 | 23.1 | 12.7 | 13.1 | −56.5 | moderate |
Malaysia | 15.5 | 13.3 | 11.8 | 13.3 | −14.2 | moderate |
Vietnam | 26.3 | 21.9 | 16.5 | 13.6 | −48.3 | moderate |
Philippines | 25 | 20.4 | 20.4 | 19 | −24 | moderate |
Indonesia | 26.1 | 29.5 | 23.1 | 19.1 | −26.8 | moderate |
Cambodia | 41.2 | 27.2 | 24.9 | 20.6 | −50 | serious |
Myanmar | 39.8 | 31.8 | 23.3 | 20.9 | −47.5 | serious |
North Korea | 39.5 | 33.1 | 28.2 | 27.5 | −30.4 | serious |
Laos | — | — | — | — | — | No Data |
Country | Climate Information | Extent of Latitude for Each Country | Share of Agriculture in GDP (%) (2020) * |
---|---|---|---|
Vietnam | Vietnam has tropical climate in the south and temperate climate in the north, with seasonal monsoon all over the country. Mean annual temperature is 24.66 °C, and mean annual rainfall is 1843.79 mm (1991–2020). | 23°22′ N 08°25′ N | 14.9 |
Indonesia | Mainly tropical rainforest climate with abundant rainfalls in low-lying plains, and cooler temperatures in the inland mountainous areas. Rainfall variability depends on monsoons, with wet season ranging from November to April and dry season ranging from May to October. Mean annual temperature is 26.14 °C, and mean annual rainfall is 2857.01 mm (1991–2020). | 6°4′ N 11°0′ S | 13.7 |
Thailand | Mostly tropical monsoon and tropical savannah climate, affected by the southwest and northeast seasonal monsoons. Mean annual temperature is 26.80 °C, and mean annual rainfall is 1549.85 mm (1991–2020). | 20°27′ N 5°37′ N | 8.6 |
Japan | Climatic conditions in Japan range from subtropical in the south to subarctic in the north. The northwest wind brings heavy snow in winter on the Sea of Japan side, while in summer the Pacific side experiences hot and humid weather, sometimes along with typhoons. Mean annual temperature is 11.31 °C, and mean annual rainfall is 1658.05 mm (1991–2020). | 45°31′ N 20°25′ N | 1.0 |
South Korea | South Korea is located within the temperate climate zone with four distinct seasons. It has dry and cold winters because of the continental high atmospheric pressure, whereas its summer is hot and humid. The summer monsoons bring most of the annual rainfall, sometimes along with typhoons during late summer. Mean annual temperature is 11.41 °C, and mean annual rainfall is 1394.50 mm (1991–2020). | 38°36′ N 33°6′ N | 1.8 |
Country | Annual Rice Yield—Annual Mean Temperature | Annual Rice Yield—Annual Minimum Temperature | Annual Rice Yield—Annual Maximum Temperature | Annual Rice Yield—Annual Precipitation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vietnam | 0.658 * | 0.739 * | 0.513 * | 0.029 * |
Indonesia | 0.852 * | 0.859 * | 0.768 * | 0.172 * |
Thailand | 0.548 * | 0.681 * | 0.353 * | 0.174 * |
Japan | 0.677 * | 0.677 * | 0.658 * | −0.221 * |
South Korea | 0.617 * | 0.507 * | 0.685 * | −0.037 * |
Country | Annual Area Harvested—Annual Mean Temperature | Annual Area Harvested—Annual Minimum Temperature | Annual Area Harvested—Annual Maximum Temperature | Annual Area Harvested—Annual Precipitation |
---|---|---|---|---|
Vietnam | 0.663 * | 0.746 * | 0.516 * | 0.048 * |
Indonesia | 0.822 * | 0.842 * | 0.719 * | 0.228 * |
Thailand | 0.519 * | 0.662 * | 0.312 * | 0.055 * |
Japan | −0.687 * | −0.739 * | −0.612 * | −0.088 * |
South Korea | −0.625 * | −0.660 * | −0.548 * | −0.010 * |
Year | Vietnam | Indonesia | Thailand | Japan | South Korea | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(°C) | Variation | (°C) | Variation | (°C) | Variation | (°C) | Variation | (°C) | Variation | |
1961–1970 | 24.1 | - | 25.6 | - | 26.3 | - | 10.4 | - | 10.5 | - |
1971–1980 | 24.2 | 0.2% | 25.7 | 0.2% | 26.3 | 0.3% | 10.4 | 0.4% | 10.6 | 0.9% |
1981–1990 | 24.3 | 0.6% | 25.9 | 0.7% | 26.4 | 0.2% | 10.5 | 0.9% | 10.7 | 1.3% |
1991–2000 | 24.6 | 1.0% | 26.0 | 0.7% | 26.7 | 1.2% | 11.1 | 5.5% | 11.3 | 4.9% |
2001–2010 | 24.6 | 0.2% | 26.1 | 0.3% | 26.7 | 0.1% | 11.3 | 1.8% | 11.4 | 1.2% |
2011–2020 | 24.8 | 0.8% | 26.3 | 0.6% | 27.0 | 1.2% | 11.5 | 1.8% | 11.6 | 1.9% |
Year | Vietnam | Indonesia | Thailand | Japan | South Korea | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(mm) | Variation | (mm) | Variation | (mm) | Variation | (mm) | Variation | (mm) | Variation | |
1961–1970 | 1827.0 | - | 2766.5 | - | 1598.4 | - | 1644.4 | - | 1374.7 | - |
1971–1980 | 1857.1 | 1.7% | 2832.1 | 2.4% | 1525.6 | −4.6% | 1640.6 | −0.2% | 1309.6 | −4.7% |
1981–1990 | 1832.7 | −1.3% | 2820.7 | −0.4% | 1499.1 | −1.7% | 1592.5 | −2.9% | 1360.1 | 3.9% |
1991–2000 | 1837.2 | 0.3% | 2776.0 | −1.6% | 1515.5 | 1.1% | 1624.0 | 2.0% | 1358.8 | −0.1% |
2001–2010 | 1836.4 | 0.0% | 2909.3 | 4.8% | 1567.2 | 3.4% | 1623.3 | 0.0% | 1471.5 | 8.3% |
2011–2020 | 1857.7 | 1.2% | 2885.7 | −0.8% | 1566.9 | 0.0% | 1726.9 | 6.4% | 1353.2 | −8.0% |
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Lin, H.-I.; Yu, Y.-Y.; Wen, F.-I.; Liu, P.-T. Status of Food Security in East and Southeast Asia and Challenges of Climate Change. Climate 2022, 10, 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10030040
Lin H-I, Yu Y-Y, Wen F-I, Liu P-T. Status of Food Security in East and Southeast Asia and Challenges of Climate Change. Climate. 2022; 10(3):40. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10030040
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin, Hen-I, Ya-Yin Yu, Fang-I Wen, and Po-Ting Liu. 2022. "Status of Food Security in East and Southeast Asia and Challenges of Climate Change" Climate 10, no. 3: 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli10030040