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Resilience and Decline: The Impact of Climatic Variability on Temperate Oak Forests -
Variability and Trends in Spring Precipitation in the Central Sector of the Iberian Peninsula (1941–2020): The Central System and Southern Iberian System -
Key Motivations, Barriers, and Enablers Toward Net-Zero Cities: An Integrated Framework and Large Survey in Japan
Journal Description
Climate
Climate
is a scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal of climate science published online monthly by MDPI. The American Society of Adaptation Professionals (ASAP) is affiliated with Climate and its members receive discounts on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, ESCI (Web of Science), GeoRef, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences) / CiteScore - Q2 (Atmospheric Science)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 21.6 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.2 (2024);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2024)
Latest Articles
Time Lags Between Meteorological and Hydrological Droughts: Evaluating Indicator Scales and Propagation Patterns
Climate 2025, 13(11), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13110220 (registering DOI) - 26 Oct 2025
Abstract
The hydrological response to meteorological drought is often nonlinear, due to physiographic features and human activities, necessitating methodologies that surpass simple drought indices. This study investigates whether drought propagation can be statistically modeled, identifies factors influencing the time lag between meteorological and hydrological
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The hydrological response to meteorological drought is often nonlinear, due to physiographic features and human activities, necessitating methodologies that surpass simple drought indices. This study investigates whether drought propagation can be statistically modeled, identifies factors influencing the time lag between meteorological and hydrological droughts, and evaluates the most suitable temporal scales of drought indicators. Meteorological droughts were detected using Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), while hydrological droughts were identified by the Adapted Threshold Level Method (ATLM), which balances available reservoir volume and the water demand, including withdrawals and evaporation losses. Castanhão, Banabuiú, and Orós reservoirs, in the State of Ceará, Brazil, were used to study drought events, across three aggregated time scales of 12, 24, and 36 months. The propagation time was determined using three indicators, corresponding to onset (Δb), peak (Δp), and conclusion (Δe) lags. Longer meteorological droughts were found to propagate more slowly to hydrological systems, with temporal lags following a consistent order of Δp > Δb > Δe. The combination of SPI-12 and ATLM-36 droughts provided the strongest and most consistent positive correlations (95% confidence level) between drought duration and all three lag markers. This combination offers a robust framework for modeling drought propagation dynamics and improving water resource management strategies.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Warming and Extreme Drought)
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Environmental Institutional Determinants of Climate Behavior Among Taiwan’s Public Officials
by
Chyi Liang, Shin-Cheng Yeh, Pei-Hsuan Lin, Homer C. Wu and Shiang-Yao Liu
Climate 2025, 13(11), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13110219 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025
Abstract
This study investigates how climate change literacy (CCL) and institutional contexts shape the climate-related behaviors of Taiwan’s public officials. Drawing on a 2024 national survey of 1940 civil servants, we apply hierarchical and comparative regression analyses to examine the relative influence of knowledge,
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This study investigates how climate change literacy (CCL) and institutional contexts shape the climate-related behaviors of Taiwan’s public officials. Drawing on a 2024 national survey of 1940 civil servants, we apply hierarchical and comparative regression analyses to examine the relative influence of knowledge, affective dispositions, and organizational supports. Results show that solution-oriented knowledge exerts greater behavioral influence than factual awareness. At the same time, affective resources—particularly self-efficacy and environmental identity—are the strongest and most consistent drivers of engagement. Institutional factors further condition these relationships: central officials’ behaviors are shaped by departmental mandates and bureaucratic constraints, whereas local officials rely more on supervisor support and prior project involvement. These findings integrate literacy research with institutional perspectives, demonstrating that effective climate governance requires both individual agency and enabling organizational contexts. Policy implications include strengthening leadership training, creating experiential learning opportunities, and streamlining administrative structures across governance levels to accelerate climate action.
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(This article belongs to the Section Policy, Governance, and Social Equity)
Open AccessArticle
Vulnerability in Coastal Touristic Cities Impacted by Tropical Cyclones and Landslides in a Changing Climate: A Case Study from Los Cabos, Mexico
by
Miguel Angel Imaz-Lamadrid, Jobst Wurl, Antonina Ivanova-Boncheva, María Z. Flores-López and Mayra Violeta Guadalupe Gutierrez-González
Climate 2025, 13(11), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13110218 - 23 Oct 2025
Abstract
Coastal areas are rich in diverse resources and are ideal locations for developing the tourism industry. Thus, in coastal tourist centers, the growth rate is high, although often disorganized and unsustainable. In Mexico, tourist centers have fostered poverty belts where inhabitants live in
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Coastal areas are rich in diverse resources and are ideal locations for developing the tourism industry. Thus, in coastal tourist centers, the growth rate is high, although often disorganized and unsustainable. In Mexico, tourist centers have fostered poverty belts where inhabitants live in conditions of high vulnerability due to hydrometeorological and geological phenomena in regular and irregular settlements. Thus, various coastal tourist areas in Mexico have been impacted by these types of phenomena, causing deaths, a high number of victims, and significant economic losses. Previous studies have confirmed that tropical cyclones can trigger landslides resulting from intense rainfall; however, risk estimation models and their components are presented separately. This paper presents a model based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) framework to estimate vulnerability to tropical cyclones and landslides in the context of climate change. The integration of both disruptive phenomena and climate change was carried out in the exposure sub-index. The socioeconomic situation of the inhabitants was included in the sensitivity sub-index. Vulnerability was modeled for the near, medium, and distant future, with population growth projections for the towns of Cabo San Lucas and San José del Cabo, Mexico. Climate change associated with urban expansion will increase exposure from 121.27 to 956.74 km2, while the vulnerable population is expected to increase from 133,266 to 250,386 by 2100. The model proved to be an effective tool for determining the combined vulnerability of both phenomena, allowing for the generation of strategies for decision-makers to implement actions focused on reducing vulnerability and building resilience.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Disaster Risk Management and Resilience)
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Temperature and Pressure Observations by Tommaso Temanza from 1751 to 1769 in Venice, Italy
by
Dario Camuffo, Antonio della Valle and Francesca Becherini
Climate 2025, 13(10), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100217 - 18 Oct 2025
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The study aims to recover, interpret, and analyze the daily meteorological observations made in Venice by Tommaso Temanza from 1751 to 1769. These records are relevant because they provide direct information about the climate of the Little Ice Age. Temanza used a barometer,
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The study aims to recover, interpret, and analyze the daily meteorological observations made in Venice by Tommaso Temanza from 1751 to 1769. These records are relevant because they provide direct information about the climate of the Little Ice Age. Temanza used a barometer, an air thermometer of Amontons’ type, and an additional mercury thermometer, i.e., Réaumur’s thermometer. These early instruments are presented and discussed in this study. The barometer readings needed standard corrections, which were unknown at that time. The scale of the air thermometer was arbitrary, and temperatures were measured in inches of mercury. For the Amontons thermometer, Temanza missed the calibration points and used a particular scale with the zero-point in the middle of the range. He gave two contradictory explanations for this choice, both of which are discussed in this paper. In the 18th century, the use of a singular value to represent the average temperature, called “Temperate”, was promoted by Michieli du Crest in Geneva and Toaldo in Padua. This work reconstructs the unknown scale, using contemporary observations by Giovanni Poleni and Giuseppe Toaldo in Padua (30 km west of Venice) and snowfall reported in the weather notes to determine the temperature point at 0 °C. A discussion is made about the calibration, validation, and conversion of readings from the original to modern units of pressure and temperature, i.e., hPa and °C, respectively. The recovered record of Venice is presented in comparison with Padua, Bologna, and Milan. The paper provides and analyzes the new dataset, and improves knowledge about the climate, history of science, instruments, and observations made in the mid-18th century.
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Sensitivity of Peru’s Economic Growth Rate to Regional Climate Variability
by
Mark R. Jury
Climate 2025, 13(10), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100216 - 17 Oct 2025
Abstract
The macro-economic growth rate of Peru is analyzed for sensitivity to climatic conditions. Year-on-year fluctuations in the inflation-adjusted gross domestic product (GDP) per capita over the period 1970–2024 are subjected to correlation and composite statistical methods. Upturns relate to cool east Pacific La
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The macro-economic growth rate of Peru is analyzed for sensitivity to climatic conditions. Year-on-year fluctuations in the inflation-adjusted gross domestic product (GDP) per capita over the period 1970–2024 are subjected to correlation and composite statistical methods. Upturns relate to cool east Pacific La Niña, downturns with warm El Niño. Composites are analyzed by subtracting upper and lower terciles, representing a difference of ~USD 40 B at current value. These reveal how the regional climate exerts a partial influence among external factors. During the austral summer with southeasterly winds over the east Pacific, sea temperatures undergo a 2.5 °C cooling. Consequently, atmospheric subsidence draws humid air from the Amazon toward the Peruvian highlands, improving crop production. Dry weather along the coast sustains transportation networks and urban infrastructure, ensuring good economic performance over the year. The opposing influence of El Niño is built into the statistics. A multi-variate algorithm is developed to predict changes in the Peru growth rate. Austral summer winds and subsurface temperatures over the tropical east Pacific account for a modest 23% of year-on-year variance. Although external factors and the varied landscape weaken macro-economic links with climate, our predictors significantly improve on traditional indices: SOI and Nino3. Adaptive measures are suggested to take advantage of Southern Oscillation’s influence on Peru’s economy.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Economics)
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Winds over the Red Sea and NE African Summer Climate
by
Mark R. Jury
Climate 2025, 13(10), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100215 - 17 Oct 2025
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This study analyzes winds over the Red Sea (17 N, 39.5 E) and consequences for the northeast African climate in early summer (May–July). As the Indian SW monsoon commences, NNW winds > 6 m/s are channeled over the Red Sea between 2000 m
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This study analyzes winds over the Red Sea (17 N, 39.5 E) and consequences for the northeast African climate in early summer (May–July). As the Indian SW monsoon commences, NNW winds > 6 m/s are channeled over the Red Sea between 2000 m highlands, forming a low-level jet. Although sea surface temperatures of 30C instill evaporation of 8 mm/day and surface humidity of 20 g/kg, the air mass above the marine layer is dry and dusty (6 g/kg, 100 µg/m3). Land–sea temperature gradients drive afternoon sea breezes and orographic rainfall (~4 mm/day) that accumulate soil moisture in support of short-cycle crops such as teff. Statistical analyses of satellite and reanalysis datasets are employed to reveal the mesoscale structure and temporal response of NE African climate to marine winds via air chemistry data alongside the meteorological elements. The annual cycle of dewpoint temperature often declines from 12C to 4C during the Indian SW monsoon onset, followed by dusty NNW winds over the Red Sea. Consequences of a 14 m/s wind surge in June 2015 are documented via analysis of satellite and meteorological products. Moist convection was stunted, according to Cloudsat reflectivity, creating a dry-east/moist-west gradient over NE Africa (13–14.5 N, 38.5–40 E). Diurnal cycles are studied via hourly data and reveal little change for advected dust and moisture but large amplitude for local heat fluxes. Inter-annual fluctuations of early summer rainfall depend on airflows from the Red Sea in response to regional gradients in air pressure and temperature and the SW monsoon over the Arabian Sea. Lag correlation suggests that stronger NNW winds herald the onset of Pacific El Nino.
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Interaction of Tropical Easterly Jets over North Africa
by
Mark R. Jury
Climate 2025, 13(10), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100214 - 17 Oct 2025
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The objective of this study is to determine how easterly jets and associated convections interact over tropical North Africa during the Jul–Sep season, using reanalysis and satellite datasets for 1990–2024. Four indices are formed to describe mid- and upper-level zonal winds, and moist
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The objective of this study is to determine how easterly jets and associated convections interact over tropical North Africa during the Jul–Sep season, using reanalysis and satellite datasets for 1990–2024. Four indices are formed to describe mid- and upper-level zonal winds, and moist convection over the Sahel and India. Time-space regression identifies the large-scale features modulating the easterly jets. Cumulative departures are analyzed and ranked to form composites in east wind/convective phases and weak wind/subsident phases. The upper-level tropical easterly jet accelerates over the Arabian Sea during and after Pacific La Nina and the cool-west Indian Ocean dipole, and shows four year cycling aligned with thermocline oscillations. The mid-level Africa easterly jet strengthens during Atlantic Nino conditions that enhance the Sahel’s convection in the Jul–Sep season. Both jets accelerate when convection spreads west of India, whereas brief spells of decoupling suppress North African crop yields. The case of 15–20 August 2018 is analyzed, when a surge of Indian monsoon convection and tropical easterly jet penetrated the Sahel, leading to widespread uplift and rainfall.
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Regulation of Health Professionals’ Work as a Climate Mitigation Strategy: Opportunities, Responsibilities, and Challenges
by
Paul Gregory and Zubin Austin
Climate 2025, 13(10), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100213 - 14 Oct 2025
Abstract
Background: The climate impacts of health professionals’ work are significant. The potential role and opportunities for regulators of health professionals’ work to drive behavioural and practice change have not been adequately explored in the literature. The objective of this research was to examine
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Background: The climate impacts of health professionals’ work are significant. The potential role and opportunities for regulators of health professionals’ work to drive behavioural and practice change have not been adequately explored in the literature. The objective of this research was to examine regulators’ perspectives on the potential role of health professions’ regulatory bodies in advancing the adoption of climate-conscious professional practice. Methods: Semi-structured interviews with 19 regulators overseeing the practice of health professionals in medicine, nursing, pharmacy, and dentistry in Canada were undertaken. Constant comparative data analysis using nVivo v15 was undertaken to identify common themes. The COREQ framework was applied to ensure the quality of the research processes used. Results: Participants highlighted their belief that there are only limited opportunities for health professions’ regulators to lead climate-positive practice change, despite their personal beliefs in the importance of the topic. The use of educational approaches, rather than legal or regulatory tools, was emphasized. Concerns were raised regarding regulatory overreach, practitioner blowback, and practical/logistical considerations. Coalition building across different facets of a profession (including educational institutions, unions, workplaces, and professional/advocacy groups) was identified as potentially most impactful. Conclusions: Previous research had highlighted practitioners’ beliefs that regulators had significant legal and practice-directed levers that could drive behavioural change towards more climate-friendly health care work. This research has highlighted regulators’ discomfort with assuming a legalistic role. Instead, they favoured persuasive techniques such as education and coalition building that may nudge, rather than compel, practitioners towards more climate-friendly practice.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Energy, Environment and Climate Policy Analysis)
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Contemporary Tendencies in Snow Cover, Winter Precipitation, and Winter Air Temperatures in the Mountain Regions of Bulgaria
by
Dimitar Nikolov and Cvetan Dimitrov
Climate 2025, 13(10), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100212 - 11 Oct 2025
Abstract
Snow is an essential meteorological variable and an indicator of the changing climate. Its variations, particularly in snow depth and snow water equivalent, result mainly from changes in winter precipitation and air temperature. Recently, these conditions have been thoroughly investigated worldwide, revealing a
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Snow is an essential meteorological variable and an indicator of the changing climate. Its variations, particularly in snow depth and snow water equivalent, result mainly from changes in winter precipitation and air temperature. Recently, these conditions have been thoroughly investigated worldwide, revealing a general prevailing decline in precipitation and increasing tendencies in air temperatures. However, no systematic or up-to-date studies for Bulgaria exist. The main goal of the current project is to fill this national knowledge gap in the snow conditions in our mountains. For that purpose, we used 31 stations with altitudes ranging from 527 to 2925 m a.s.l. for the period between 1961 and 2020, covering two significant reference climatic periods. We extracted data about snow cover maximums, mean air temperatures, and precipitation amounts for the whole winter season in mountainous regions from October to April; however, we mainly present the results for the three winter months: December, January, and February. Most of the stations do not demonstrate any significant trends for snow depth maximums, except for the three lower stations in central west Bulgaria, which show significant increases. On the opposite end of the scale, two of the highest stations demonstrated notable decreases. The time series for the precipitation amounts are also predominantly indefinite. Significant decreasing trends can be found at the highest three alpine stations. The change in the mean seasonal air temperature is predominantly positive—17 of the stations show positive trends, and for 12, the increases are significant. The altitude of the strongest seasonal temperature rise lies between 1000 and 1700 m. Finally, due to the obvious nonlinearity of some of the time series, we decided to check for change points and a nonlinear approach to fit the data. This analysis demonstrates general changes in the investigated characteristics from the beginning of the 1970s to the middle of the 1980s.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Change Scenarios and Impacts for the Mountain Regions at Middle Latitudes)
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Development of Automatic Labels for Cold Front Detection in South America: A 2009 Case Study for Deep Learning Applications
by
Dejanira Ferreira Braz, Luana Albertani Pampuch, Michelle Simões Reboita, Tercio Ambrizzi and Tristan Pryer
Climate 2025, 13(10), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100211 - 8 Oct 2025
Abstract
Deep learning models for atmospheric pattern recognition require spatially consistent training labels that align precisely with input meteorological fields. This study introduces an automatic cold front detection method using the ERA5 reanalysis dataset from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) at
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Deep learning models for atmospheric pattern recognition require spatially consistent training labels that align precisely with input meteorological fields. This study introduces an automatic cold front detection method using the ERA5 reanalysis dataset from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) at 850 hPa, specifically designed to generate physically consistent labels for machine learning applications. The approach combines the Thermal Front Parameter (TFP) with temperature advection (AdvT), applying optimized thresholds (TFP < 5 × 10−11 K m−2; AdvT < −1 × 10−4 K s−1), morphological filtering, and polynomial smoothing. Comparison against 1426 manual charts from 2009 revealed systematic spatial displacement, with mean offsets of ~502 km. Although pixel-level overlap was low, with Intersection over Union (IoU) = 0.013 and Dice coefficient (Dice) = 0.034, spatial concordance exceeded 99%, confirming both methods identify the same synoptic systems. The automatic method detects 58% more fronts over the South Atlantic and 44% fewer over the Andes compared to manual charts. Seasonal variability shows maximum activity in austral winter (31.3%) and minimum in summer (20.1%). This is the first automatic front detection system calibrated for South America that maintains direct correspondence between training labels and reanalysis input fields, addressing the spatial misalignment problem that limits deep learning applications in atmospheric sciences.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Meteorological Forecasting and Modeling in Climatology)
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High-Resolution Temporal Variation of Thermal Discomfort Indices in the Eastern Mediterranean City of Athens, Greece, Since the Beginning of the 20th Century (1901–2024)
by
Basil E. Psiloglou, Nikolas Gkinis and Christos Giannakopoulos
Climate 2025, 13(10), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100210 - 6 Oct 2025
Abstract
This study analyzes more than a century of hourly meteorological data (1901–2024) from the Thissio station in central Athens, Greece, to assess the long-term changes in human thermal discomfort. Three simple and widely used bioclimatic indices, Thom’s Discomfort Index (TDI), Humidex (HMDX), and
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This study analyzes more than a century of hourly meteorological data (1901–2024) from the Thissio station in central Athens, Greece, to assess the long-term changes in human thermal discomfort. Three simple and widely used bioclimatic indices, Thom’s Discomfort Index (TDI), Humidex (HMDX), and Heat Index (HI), were calculated to capture the combined effects of air temperature and humidity. The results show a marked increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of thermal discomfort since the 1980s, with a strong acceleration after 2000. The number of days with severe or dangerous heat stress has more than doubled compared with the mid-20th century, and periods of high discomfort now extend from June to September. The maximum values of HMDX and HI have exceeded critical health thresholds, highlighting increasing risks for the urban population. These findings demonstrate how rising temperature and humidity amplify heat stress in a Mediterranean city and emphasize the need for adaptation strategies in urban planning and public health to reduce vulnerability to extreme heat.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Confronting the Climate Change and Health Nexus: Interactions, Impacts, and Adaptation Strategies)
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Building Climate Resilient Fisheries and Aquaculture in Bangladesh: A Review of Impacts and Adaptation Strategies
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Mohammad Mahfujul Haque, Md. Naim Mahmud, A. K. Shakur Ahammad, Md. Mehedi Alam, Alif Layla Bablee, Neaz A. Hasan, Abul Bashar and Md. Mahmudul Hasan
Climate 2025, 13(10), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100209 - 4 Oct 2025
Abstract
This study examines the impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture in Bangladesh, one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world. The fisheries and aquaculture sectors contribute significantly to the national GDP and support the livelihoods of 12% of the total
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This study examines the impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture in Bangladesh, one of the most climate-vulnerable countries in the world. The fisheries and aquaculture sectors contribute significantly to the national GDP and support the livelihoods of 12% of the total population. Using a Critical Literature Review (CLR) approach, peer-reviewed articles, government reports, and official datasets published between 2006 and 2025 were reviewed across databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, FAO, and the Bangladesh Department of Fisheries (DoF). The analysis identifies major climate drivers, including rising temperature, erratic rainfall, salinity intrusion, sea-level rise, floods, droughts, cyclones, and extreme events, and reviews their differentiated impacts on key components of the sector: inland capture fisheries, marine fisheries, and aquaculture systems. For inland capture fisheries, the review highlights habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, and disrupted fish migration and breeding cycles. In aquaculture, particularly in coastal systems, this study reviews the challenges posed by disease outbreaks, water quality deterioration, and disruptions in seed supply, affecting species such as carp, tilapia, pangasius, and shrimp. Coastal aquaculture is also particularly vulnerable to cyclones, tidal surges, and saline water intrusion, with documented economic losses from events such as Cyclones Yaas, Bulbul, Amphan, and Remal. The study synthesizes key findings related to climate-resilient aquaculture practices, monitoring frameworks, ecosystem-based approaches, and community-based adaptation strategies. It underscores the need for targeted interventions, especially in coastal areas facing increasing salinity levels and frequent storms. This study calls for collective action through policy interventions, research and development, and the promotion of climate-smart technologies to enhance resilience and sustain fisheries and aquaculture in the context of a rapidly changing climate.
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(This article belongs to the Collection Adaptation and Mitigation Practices and Frameworks)
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Tropical Fungi and LULUCF: Synergies for Climate Mitigation Through Nature-Based Culture (NbC)
by
Retno Prayudyaningsih, Maman Turjaman, Margaretta Christita, Neo Endra Lelana, Ragil Setio Budi Irianto, Sarjiya Antonius, Safinah Surya Hakim, Asri Insiana Putri, Henti Hendalastuti Rachmat, Virni Budi Arifanti, Wahyu Catur Adinugroho, Said Fahmi, Rinaldi Imanuddin, Sri Suharti, Ulfah Karmila Sari, Asep Hidayat, Sona Suhartana, Tien Wahyuni, Sisva Silsigia, Tsuyoshi Kato, Ricksy Prematuri, Ahmad Faizal, Kae Miyazawa and Mitsuru Osakiadd
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Climate 2025, 13(10), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100208 - 2 Oct 2025
Abstract
Fungi in tropical ecosystems remain an understudied yet critical component of climate change mitigation, particularly within the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) sector. This review highlights their dual role in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by regulating carbon dioxide (CO2
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Fungi in tropical ecosystems remain an understudied yet critical component of climate change mitigation, particularly within the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry (LULUCF) sector. This review highlights their dual role in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by regulating carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxides (N2O) while enhancing long-term carbon sequestration. Mycorrhizal fungi are pivotal in maintaining soil integrity, facilitating nutrient cycling, and amplifying carbon storage capacity through symbiotic mechanisms. We synthesize how fungal symbiotic systems under LULUCF shape ecosystem networks and note that, in pristine ecosystems, these networks are resilient. We introduce the concept of Nature-based Culture (NbC) to describe symbiotic self-cultures sustaining ecosystem stability, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. Case studies demonstrate how the NbC concept is applied in reforestation strategies such as AeroHydro Culture (AHC), the Integrated Mangrove Sowing System (IMSS), and the 4N approach (No Plastic, No Burning, No Chemical Fertilizer, Native Species). These approaches leverage mycorrhizal networks to improve restoration outcomes in peatlands, mangroves, and semi-arid regions while minimizing land disturbance and chemical inputs. Therefore, by bridging fungal ecology with LULUCF policy, this review advocates for a paradigm shift in forest management that integrates fungal symbioses to strengthen carbon storage, ecosystem resilience, and human well-being.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Ecosystems under Climate Change)
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Temporal Variability of Major Stratospheric Sudden Warmings in CMIP5 Climate Change Scenarios
by
Víctor Manuel Chávez-Pérez, Juan A. Añel, Citlalli Almaguer-Gómez and Laura de la Torre
Climate 2025, 13(10), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100207 - 2 Oct 2025
Abstract
Major stratospheric sudden warmings are key processes in the coupling between the stratosphere and the troposphere, exerting a direct influence on mid-latitude climate variability. This study evaluates projected changes in the frequency of these phenomena during the 2006–2100 period using six high-top general
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Major stratospheric sudden warmings are key processes in the coupling between the stratosphere and the troposphere, exerting a direct influence on mid-latitude climate variability. This study evaluates projected changes in the frequency of these phenomena during the 2006–2100 period using six high-top general circulation models from the CMIP5 project under the Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios 2.6, 4.5, and 8.5. The analysis combines the full future period with a moving-window approach of 27 and 48 years, compared against both the satellite-era (1979–2005) and extended historical (1958–2005) periods. This methodology reveals that model responses are highly heterogeneous, with alternating periods of significant increases and decreases in event frequency, partially modulated by internal variability. The magnitude and statistical significance of the projected changes strongly depend on the chosen historical reference period, and most models tend to reproduce displacement-type polar vortex events preferentially over split-type events. These results indicate that assessments based solely on multi-model means or long aggregated periods may mask subperiods with robust signals, although some of these may arise by chance given the 5% significance threshold. This underscores the need for temporally resolved analyses to improve the understanding of stratospheric variability and its potential impact on climate predictability.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)
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Enhancing Climate Modeling over the Upper Blue Nile Basin Using RegCM5-MOLOCH
by
Eatemad Keshta, Doaa Amin, Ashraf M. ElMoustafa and Mohamed A. Gad
Climate 2025, 13(10), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100206 - 2 Oct 2025
Abstract
The Upper Blue Nile Basin (UBNB), which contributes about 60% to the annual Nile flow, plays a critical role in the Nile water management. However, its complex terrain and climate create significant challenges for accurate regional climate simulations, which are essential for climate
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The Upper Blue Nile Basin (UBNB), which contributes about 60% to the annual Nile flow, plays a critical role in the Nile water management. However, its complex terrain and climate create significant challenges for accurate regional climate simulations, which are essential for climate impact assessments. This study aims to address the challenges of climate simulation over the UBNB by enhancing the Regional Climate Model system (RegCM5) with its new non-hydrostatic dynamical core (MOLOCH) to simulate precipitation and temperature. The model is driven by ERA5 reanalysis for the period (2000–2009), and two scenarios are simulated using two different schemes of the Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL): Holtslag (Hol) and University of Washington (UW). The two scenarios, noted as (MOLOCH-Hol and MOLOCH-UW), are compared to the previously best-performing hydrostatic configuration. The MOLOCH-UW scenario showed the best precipitation performance relative to observations, with an accepted dry Bias% up to 22%, and a high annual cycle correlation >0.85. However, MOLOCH-Hol showed a very good performance only in the wet season with a wet bias of 4% and moderate correlation of ≈0.6. For temperature, MOLOCH-UW also outperformed, achieving the lowest cold/warm bias range of −2% to +3%, and high correlations of ≈0.9 through the year and the wet season. This study concluded that the MOLOCH-UW is the most reliable configuration for reproducing the climate variability over the UBNB. This developed configuration is a promising tool for the basin’s hydroclimate applications, such as dynamical downscaling of the seasonal forecasts and future climate change scenarios produced by global circulation models. Future improvements could be achieved through convective-permitting simulation at ≤4 km resolution, especially in the application of assessing the land use change impact.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate Dynamics and Modelling)
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Terrain-Based High-Resolution Microclimate Modeling for Cold-Air-Pool-Induced Frost Risk Assessment in Karst Depressions
by
András Dobos, Réka Farkas and Endre Dobos
Climate 2025, 13(10), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100205 - 30 Sep 2025
Abstract
Cold-air pooling (CAP) and frost risk represent significant climate-related hazards in karstic and agricultural environments, where local topography and surface cover strongly modulate microclimatic conditions. This study focuses on the Mohos sinkhole, Hungary’s cold pole, situated on the Bükk Plateau, to investigate the
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Cold-air pooling (CAP) and frost risk represent significant climate-related hazards in karstic and agricultural environments, where local topography and surface cover strongly modulate microclimatic conditions. This study focuses on the Mohos sinkhole, Hungary’s cold pole, situated on the Bükk Plateau, to investigate the formation, structure, and persistence of CAPs in a Central European karst depression. High-resolution terrain-based modeling was conducted using UAV-derived digital surface models combined with multiple GIS tools (Sky-View Factor, Wind Exposition Index, Cold Air Flow, and Diurnal Anisotropic Heat). These models were validated and enriched by multi-level temperature measurements and thermal imaging under various synoptic conditions. Results reveal that temperature inversions frequently form during clear, calm nights, leading to extreme near-surface cold accumulation within the sinkhole. Inversions may persist into the day due to topographic shading and density stratification. Vegetation and basin geometry influence radiative and turbulent fluxes, shaping the spatial extent and intensity of cold-air layers. The CAP is interpreted as part of a broader interconnected multi-sinkhole system. This integrated approach offers a transferable, cost-effective framework for terrain-driven frost hazard assessment, with direct relevance to precision agriculture, mesoscale model refinement, and site-specific climate adaptation in mountainous or frost-sensitive regions.
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(This article belongs to the Section Climate and Environment)
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Open AccessSystematic Review
The Effects of Climate Change on Health: A Systematic Review from a One Health Perspective
by
Indira A. Luza Eyzaguirre, Esley Lima de Sousa, Yago de Jesus Martins, Marcus E. B. Fernandes and Aldemir B. Oliveira-Filho
Climate 2025, 13(10), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100204 - 29 Sep 2025
Abstract
Climate change has been occurring due to global warming since the 1950s, causing impacts on natural and social systems, including health. This review article involves the One Health approach as a holistic approach that integrates environmental, human, and animal health, since there is
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Climate change has been occurring due to global warming since the 1950s, causing impacts on natural and social systems, including health. This review article involves the One Health approach as a holistic approach that integrates environmental, human, and animal health, since there is a significant gap in knowledge about the impacts of climate change on health. The questions that guide this research are as follows: What is the state of the art in studies on climate change and One Health? What are the main topics addressed in studies on climate change and One Health at a global level? The main objective is to conduct a systematic review of studies on climate change and its relationship with One Health to assess the main topics studied, involving climate change and health at a global level, and identify the gaps and challenges of these studies. The review demonstrated the exponential growth of studies that relate climate change to One Health, especially in the last three decades, with more records of studies that address infectious diseases such as arboviruses. Furthermore, studies on climate and its impact on mental health were detected, causing depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), solastalgia, and eco-anxiety, especially in vulnerable populations such as indigenous communities, women, children, family farmers, and the elderly. The One Health approach was shown to be restricted to health-related issues. Thus, theoretical and experimental studies are still needed to assess the real impact of climate change on the various axes involving human health and its relationship with anthropogenic activities, environmental health, and animal health.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Impact on Human Health)
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Open AccessReview
Hail Netting in Apple Orchards: Current Knowledge, Research Gaps, and Perspectives for Digital Agriculture
by
Danielle Elis Garcia Furuya, Édson Luis Bolfe, Franco da Silveira, Jayme Garcia Arnal Barbedo, Tamires Lima da Silva, Luciana Alvim Santos Romani, Letícia Ferrari Castanheiro and Luciano Gebler
Climate 2025, 13(10), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100203 - 28 Sep 2025
Abstract
Hailstorms are a major climatic threat to apple production, causing substantial economic losses in orchards worldwide. Anti-hail nets have been increasingly adopted to mitigate this risk, but the scientific literature on their effectiveness and future applications remains scattered, especially considering advances in digital
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Hailstorms are a major climatic threat to apple production, causing substantial economic losses in orchards worldwide. Anti-hail nets have been increasingly adopted to mitigate this risk, but the scientific literature on their effectiveness and future applications remains scattered, especially considering advances in digital agriculture. This study synthesizes current knowledge on the use of anti-hail nets in apple orchards through a systematic review and explores future perspectives involving digital technologies. A PRISMA-based review was conducted using three databases, revealing information regarding the studied countries, netting colors, and apple varieties, among others. A clear research gap was identified in integrating anti-hail nets with remote sensing and Artificial Intelligence (AI). This paper also analyzes studies from Vacaria, Brazil, a key apple-producing region and part of the Semear Digital project, highlighting local efforts to use hail netting in commercial orchards. Potential applications of AI algorithms and remote sensing are proposed for hail netting assessment, orchard monitoring, and decision-making support. These technologies can improve predictive modeling, quantify areas, and enhance precision management. Findings suggest combining traditional protective methods with technological innovations to strengthen orchard resilience in regions exposed to extreme weather.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Risk in Agriculture, Analysis, Modeling and Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
One Country, Several Droughts: Characterisation, Evolution, and Trends in Meteorological Droughts in Spain Within the Context of Climate Change
by
David Espín Sánchez and Jorge Olcina Cantos
Climate 2025, 13(10), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100202 - 26 Sep 2025
Abstract
In this paper, we analyse drought variability in Spain (1950–2024) using the Standardised Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) at 6-, 12-, and 24-month scales. Using 43 long-record meteorological observatories (AEMET), we compute SPEI from quality-controlled (QC), homogenised series, and derive coherent drought regions via clustering
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In this paper, we analyse drought variability in Spain (1950–2024) using the Standardised Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) at 6-, 12-, and 24-month scales. Using 43 long-record meteorological observatories (AEMET), we compute SPEI from quality-controlled (QC), homogenised series, and derive coherent drought regions via clustering and assess trends in the frequency, duration, and intensity of dry episodes (SPEI ≤ −1.5), including seasonality and statistical significance (p < 0.05). Short-term behaviour (SPEI-6) has become more complex in recent decades, with the emergence of a “Catalonia” type and stronger June–October deficits across the northern interior; Mediterranean coasts show smaller or non-significant changes. Long-term behaviour (SPEI-24) is more structural, with increasing persistence and duration over the north-eastern interior and Andalusia–La Mancha, consistent with multi-year drought. Overall, short and long scales converge on rising drought severity and persistence across interior Spain, supporting multi-scale monitoring and region-specific adaptation in agriculture, water resources, and forest management. Key figures are as follows: at 6 months—frequency 0.09/0.08 per decade (Centre–León/Catalonia), duration 0.59/0.50 months per decade, intensity −0.12 to −0.10 SPEI per decade; at 24 months—frequency 0.5 per decade (Cantabrian/NE interior), duration 0.8/0.7/0.4 months per decade (Andalusia–La Mancha/NE interior/Cabo de Gata–Almería), intensity −0.06 SPEI per decade; Mediterranean changes are smaller or non-significant.
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(This article belongs to the Section Weather, Events and Impacts)
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Open AccessArticle
Near-Surface Temperature Climate Change in the Caspian Region: A Study Using Meteorological Station Data, Reanalyses, and CMIP6 Models
by
Ilya Serykh, Svetlana Krasheninnikova, Said Safarov, Elnur Safarov, Ebrahim Asadi Oskouei, Tatiana Gorbunova, Roman Gorbunov and Yashar Falamarzi
Climate 2025, 13(10), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13100201 - 25 Sep 2025
Abstract
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The climatic variability of near-surface air temperature (NSAT) over the Caspian region (35–60° N; 40–65° E) was analyzed in this study. The analysis was based on a comparison of data from various sources: weather stations, NOAA OISSTv2 satellite-based data, atmospheric reanalyses ECMWF ERA5,
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The climatic variability of near-surface air temperature (NSAT) over the Caspian region (35–60° N; 40–65° E) was analyzed in this study. The analysis was based on a comparison of data from various sources: weather stations, NOAA OISSTv2 satellite-based data, atmospheric reanalyses ECMWF ERA5, NASA MERRA-2, and NCEP/NCAR, and the outputs from 33 Earth system models (ESMs) participating in the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6). CMIP6 models results from the historical and Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) experiments were utilized. Over the period 1940–2023, NSAT exhibited variable changes across the Caspian region. Weather stations in the northwestern part of the region indicated NSAT increases of 0.9 ± 0.2 °C for 1985–2023. In the central-western part of the Caspian region, the increase in average NSAT between 1940–1969 and 1994–2023 was 1.4 °C with a spatial standard deviation of 0.3 °C. In the southern part of the Caspian region, the increase in average NSAT between 1986–2004 and 2005–2023 was 0.8 ± 0.1 °C. Importantly, all 33 CMIP6 models, as well as the ERA5 reanalysis, captured an average NSAT increase of approximately 1.3 ± 0.5 °C for the whole Caspian region between 1940–1969 and 1994–2023. From the ERA5 data, the increase in NSAT was more pronounced in the north (~1.6 °C) than in the central Caspian region, with the most significant warming observed in the mountainous regions of Iran (up to 3.0 °C). Under various CMIP6 SSPs scenarios (SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, and SSP5-8.5), projections indicate an increase in average NSAT across the study region. Comparing the periods 1994–2023 and 2070–2099, the projected NSAT increases are 1.7 ± 0.7 °C, 2.8 ± 0.8 °C, 4.0 ± 0.9 °C, and 5.2 ± 1.2 °C, respectively. For the earlier period of 2024–2053 relative to 1994–2023, the projected NSAT increases are 1.2 ± 0.4 °C, 1.3 ± 0.4 °C, 1.4 ± 0.4 °C, and 1.7 ± 0.5 °C. Notably, the projected increase in NSAT is slower over the Caspian Sea compared to the surrounding land areas.
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