Next Article in Journal
The Philippines’ Energy Transition: Assessing Emerging Technology Options Using OSeMOSYS (Open-Source Energy Modelling System)
Previous Article in Journal
Assessment of Climate Change in Angola and Potential Impacts on Agriculture
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Climate
Volume 13
Issue 1
10.3390/cli13010013
climate-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

A Pilot Study on the Main Air Pollutants in a Rural Community in Guanajuato, Mexico, Using a Low-Cost ATMOTUBE® Monitor

by
Rebeca Monroy-Torres
Environmental Nutrition and Food Security Laboratory, Medicine and Nutrition Department, University of Guanajuato, Campus Leon, Blvd. Milenio 1001, Predio San Carlos S/N, Leon de los Aldama 37670, Guanajuato, Mexico
Climate 2025, 13(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13010013
Submission received: 4 November 2024 / Revised: 22 December 2024 / Accepted: 24 December 2024 / Published: 8 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient, and Sustainable Built Environment)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Air pollution is the second leading cause of death from non-communicable diseases. In Guanajuato, Mexico, the brick industry is the main economic source of polluting emissions, with the greatest health impacts. This sector has initiated government regulatory changes, but there is currently no monitoring of its impact on health. As a first pilot phase, this study’s objective was to measure the main air pollutants in a rural community in Guanajuato, Mexico, using a low-cost ATMOTUBE® monitor and to describe the area and population group at the greatest risk of exposure. An analytical and longitudinal design from September 2023 to February 2024, with the ATMOTUBE® measurement parameters VOC, PM1, PM2.5, PM10, temperature, humidity, and pressure, was used. During the six months of measurement, the results were as follows: a VOC of 4.15 ± 11.79 ppm, an Air Quality Score (AQS) of 65.17 ± 30.11, and a PM1 value of 4.90 ± 18.43 μg/m3. January–February 2024 was the period with the highest concentration of pollutants, with a maximum PM2.5 concentration of 664 ± 12.5 μg/m3, a maximum PM10 concentration of 650 ± 14.8 μg/m3, and a low humidity value (34.1 ± 5.2%). These values were found near two schools. The first inventory of the main air pollutants in this rural community is presented, with children and women being the population at greatest risk. With these data from this pilot phase, it is recommended to start implementing surveillance measures alongside health and nutrition indicators, mainly for the vulnerable population of this rural community.

1. Introduction

The brick industry is a family economic sector that uses rudimentary and highly polluting technology; therefore, it lacks adherence to environmental legislation. Various materials are used to manufacture traditional red brick (baked clay partitions), from authorized to unauthorized, thus determining the type of pollutants and particulates generated [1]. Air pollution contributes to the prevalence of respiratory diseases, such as asthma, in addition to conditions of cardiovascular function, cognitive impairment, cancer, etc., mainly affecting the vulnerable population (e.g., pregnant women, premature births, those with low birth weight and immune diseases) [2].
Artisanal brick production is one of the main family economic activities that has been undertaken for many years. Various materials and inputs are used during the firing process, such as fuel (treated wood, skin waste from leather and shoe manufacturing, outer coconut shells, tires, and coconut, among others), many of them unregulated. The main pollutants generated by brick kilning are carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), heavy metal gases, carbon dioxide (CO2), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and dioxins, among others. Particulate matter (PM) is one of the main pollutants. The health effects of PM10 particles reaching the lungs have been identified. PM2.5 is the most dangerous because it passes from the lungs to the bloodstream. Two studies carried out by Chen et al. reported that an increase of 10 μg/m3 in PM2.5 concentrations was associated with increased mortality from all causes of cardiovascular disease, such as acute myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, and stroke, affecting the older population, i.e., 65 years old and above, and mainly men. Meanwhile, PM1 particles have a diameter of less than one micron, are extremely fine, and are more likely to reach the respiratory system than PM2.5 [3,4]. Other pollutants generated from brick kilning are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are resistant to degradation and can be transported for long distances in the environment because of their volatility and mobility characteristics, which include vaporizing easily and reaching the environment [5,6].

1.1. The Ladrilleras Del Refugio: A Study Case from Guanajuato

Air pollution is the second leading cause of death from non-communicable diseases. Bricks are an important construction material that is widely used in Mexico, mainly in Guanajuato, which ranks third in terms of the number of brick-kilning facilities in the country. The state of Guanajuato is in the center of Mexico, where the construction industry has an important role, and the brick economic sector contributed 5.1% of the growth domestic product (GDP) in 2022 [7]. Guanajuato has a population of 6 million 166 thousand 934 inhabitants [8], with a poverty rate of 41.9% and a severe food insecurity rate of 28.1% [8,9]. The “Ladrilleras del Refugio” is a rural community near the city of León (one of the main cities in the state of Guanajuato). This rural community was relocated in the 1980s due to population growth and currently has a population of 1800 people distributed across 319 homes. Producers have been trying to implement regulations for several years, but governments have not been able to provide a solution. The impacts of bad air quality have affected the health of the producers, their families, and the rest of the inhabitants closest to the community who are not dedicated to this economic activity. Furthermore, the population of Ladrilleras del Refugio, mainly the producers, does not have access to a healthy diet because ultra-processed products (high in fats and sugars) are more physically and economically accessible than healthy foods. A report showed that the cost of drinks with added sugars or soda is lower in rural environments than in urban ones (approximately MXN 1 less), which explains why eating healthy is not a priority because the main priority for brick producers is to regulate their economic activity with the implementation of technology that mitigates environmental impacts [10]. Producers know about the health impacts generated by their economic activity [10,11], and many people in the rural community already present illnesses related to the respiratory tract, such as asthma, short stature, different types of cancer, and neurological deterioration. Boys, girls, older adults, and pregnant women are the most affected and vulnerable people in the community. Cohort studies in children have demonstrated that exposure to outdoor air pollution is associated with impaired lung development. Moreover, when this exposure occurs during the prenatal stage, it influences the development of asthma from early childhood [12]. The materials used as fuels in this community are treated wood, skin waste from leather and shoe manufacturing, outer coconut shells, plastics, tires, sawdust, and coconut, among others. There is a relationship between fuels and pollutants [13,14,15].
Health and nutritional interventions have been carried out in the community since 2013. However, the integral program called “Training for brick producers through awareness about access to information, to achieve brick production in accordance with the main environmental standards, good sustainable production practices that improve air quality and therefore health in the community of The Ladrilleras del Refugio (PROSEDE-INAI 2022)” was implemented at the end of 2021 [16]. This intervention included health (food security), environmental, economic, social, and legal variables. The main outcomes were effective communication and the union of brick producers, with the subsequent implementation of a “Government Decree for the Installation of a Mixed Commission to Care for the Brick Sector in the State of Guanajuato”. This intergovernmental mixed commission is a consultative body of the Secretariat of Environment and Territorial (SMAOT), whose main objectives are to generate conditions of sustainable development for the brick economic sector in Guanajuato by implementing less-polluting technology, regularize the land where brick-kilning facilities are installed, decrease environmental pollutants and the impacts, and improve the social conditions of the population dedicated to this activity [17]. This decree began in the rural community of “Las Ladrilleras del Refugio” with the implementation of a social and governmental program involving the manufacture of three brick-kilning facilities (called MK2) with low pollutant emissions. However, there is currently no measurement or monitoring of this new technology or the effects of its emissions on the environment and health. Hence, this pilot-phase study aimed to measure the main pollutants generated during the implementation of this government program with this new technology. The initial results will help measure the impact on the health of the inhabitants during the transition from traditional ovens to the new technology (MK2).

1.2. Air Quality Sensors

Air quality sensors (also known as “low-cost” sensors) are cheaper, more portable, and easier to operate, and their technological effectiveness has been improving since their implementation. They are currently used by governments, air quality managers, scientists, and citizens, whose information can help the public learn more about air quality in their homes and communities [18]. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) is involved in advancing air quality sensor technology [19].
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has published an Air Quality Index (AQI) for the interpretation of criteria pollutants. It is a tool for communicating about outdoor air quality and health. The AQI includes six color-coded categories, each corresponding to a range of index values. The higher the AQI value, the higher the level of air pollution and the greater the health problem. For example, an AQI value of 50 or less represents good air quality, while an AQI value of greater than 300 represents hazardous air quality. The EPA has established an AQI for five major air pollutants regulated by the Clean Air Act. Each of these pollutants has a national air quality standard set by the EPA to protect public health and include ground-level ozone, particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide [19]. While ATMOTUBE® detects a wide range of harmful gases and volatile organic compounds (as well as PM), the cumulative parameter called the Air Quality Score (AQS) provides an instant understanding of air quality [20]. The cut-off points range from 0 (very polluted air) to 100 (very clean).
Exposure to poor air quality is associated with a higher prevalence of non-communicable diseases and mortality. Although interventions have been attempted for years in this community, this is the first historical, legal, and formal governmental intervention that has been carried out with the implementation of low-emission kiln technology (producing emissions of less than 70%, according to data reported by the Secretariat of Environment and Territorial Development of Guanajuato). Therefore, this is also the first pilot study in which the main objective is measuring and monitoring the air quality during this technological transformation to describe the main air pollutants generated from brick production using the low-cost ATMOTUBE® sensor and measuring the distance between the brick production area and schools. This will contribute to the design of a surveillance and monitoring program for the impact of this government strategy on the health of the population of the Ladrillera community in the state of Guanajuato and those close to the neighborhoods.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Description of Study Region

Guanajuato is in central Mexico. It has 6,166,934 inhabitants [21], of which 51.4% are women (41% work at home). Guanajuato has the 5th highest number of inhabitants in the country (contributing 93% of the population that emigrates to the United States). Guanajuato is divided into regions: Region III (central) has the largest population (67%) and covers an approximate territorial area of 7761 km2, equivalent to 25.4% of the state territory. Region I (northeast) has a smaller proportion of the population (4.9%). The state of Guanajuato has 46 municipalities or cities. The city of Leon comprises 27.9% of the population of Guanajuato [8]. The Ladrilleras del Refugio community is a small population group, with 1624 people located on the outskirts of the urban area of the city of Leon, Guanajuato. The community was created from the relocation of the city’s brick economic sector in 1985. The community is a polygon divided into 30 hectares, with 207 families and 168 producers who operate 198 traditional brick kilns, called fixed and bell ovens, which represent approximately 53% of the total brick-kilning facilities located in Leon City (Figure 1). It is located less than 800 m from the urban and recreational areas and nearest to the school zone [8]. Ladrilleras del Refugio has a kindergarten, a primary school, and a technical high school. Figure 2 displays the distance between the community’s residential area and the brick kilns’ location (Pozo and Adobe streets). The limits are adjacent; therefore, the exposure is high among the inhabitants (Figure 2).

2.2. Study Design

An analytical and longitudinal pilot design was carried out from September 2023 to February 2024. Several parameters (VOC, PM1, PM2.5, PM10, temperature, humidity, and pressure) were measured in real time using the mobile air quality sensor ATMOTUBE®. Google Maps was used to show the georeferencing of risk areas in the community with a vulnerable population and their proximity to the kilns and brick production areas. The data on the main pollutants monitored so far by the Secretary of Environment and Territorial Development for Guanajuato were integrated via requests for access to information in the National Platform for Access to Information (INAI) [22].

2.3. Measurement Frequency

Visits to the community were conducted on a weekly and biweekly basis from August 2023 to February 2024. The measurements were carried out while mobile (with a portable device) and walking along the route in this rural community. The measurements were taken mainly in the areas closest to the primary and secondary schools, as well as in the two closest brick kilns. Each value was averaged and reported monthly from August 2023 to February 2024.

2.4. Interpretation of Criteria Pollutants

ATMOTUBE®’s Air Quality Score (AQS) was considered [23] with the following cut-off points:
  • The AQS ranged from 0 (very polluted air) to 100 (very clean) points.
  • Good air (81–100): the air quality is considered satisfactory, and air pollution poses little or no risk.
  • Moderate air (61–80): the air quality is acceptable.
  • Polluted air (41–60): vulnerable age groups may experience health effects.
  • Highly polluted air (21–40): health effects may be experienced; the health effects may be more serious for members of sensitive groups.
  • Severely contaminated air (0–20): a health alert should be disseminated, and exposure to the outdoors should be avoided.
The interpretation considered the update of the new EPA criteria and, at the time of this analysis, was conducted per the new standard that came into force on 6 May 2024 (9 μg/m3 versus 12 μg/m3 for PM2.5 per the previous report) [24,25].
The cut-off points for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) considered 0.5 to 1 mg/m3 as marginal and 1 to 3 mg/m3 as high [26].

3. Results

During this study, the main pollutants and concentrations were measured from August 2023 to February 2024 with the ATMOTUBE® monitor. Table 1 shows the monthly descriptions for each criterion pollutant alongside other variables. Figure 3 displays the monthly behavior of each variable. The particulate matter in September was above the recommendations, with PM2.5 and PM10 presenting a non-normal distribution on a monthly basis. Likewise, September presented the highest temperature among the months measured (T° 26.2 ± 1.42). The average AQS score values were between 60 and 80 in all months, except August (ranging from moderate air (61–80) to polluted air (41–60)). The results show that the volatile organic compound (VOC) levels in January and February 2024 were the highest and considered high. Meanwhile, October presented a significant decrease in pollutants.

3.1. Results of Data Obtained Using Information Access Tools

The information in Table 2 derives from the information requested from the Ministry of Environment and Territorial Planning (SMAOT), an institution whose mission is to safeguard the environmental quality of the Guanajuato population, via access-to-information tools of the National Institute of Transparency [22]. The SMAOT shared information on the historical data and inventory of emissions of the main pollutants generated in brick manufacturing by producers from Guanajuato in 2021 (Table 2).
Upon requesting historical data on the inventory of emissions and types of pollutants generated in the “Ladrilleras del Refugio” in the municipality of León, the SMAOT responded with the estimates made by the secretariat with the information for 2023 (Table 3).

3.2. Locations of Ovens and Schools in Community

The locations of the brick kilns are shown in Figure 4a–d. The distance between the community’s residential area and the production area is closer than the distance from the community secondary school shown in Figure 4a–d, which is 1 to 2 min walking (150 m). Figure 4a,b show the locations of the primary and secondary schools and residential areas in the area where the brick kilns are located. The periphery is an urban area that is already close to the community (Figure 4e).

4. Discussion

Air pollution contributes to increased cases of respiratory tract diseases, which can affect the development of the lungs and promote the development of asthma and chronic obstructive disease (COPD), in addition to affecting the function of blood vessels and accelerating the calcification of the arteries. In addition, air pollution increases the risk of pregnant women being chronically exposed to hypertensive disorders, which are the main cause of premature birth, low birth weight, and death of the mother and/or baby. Furthermore, exposure to PM2.5 particles, even at low levels, can alter a child’s brain size, increasing the risk of developing cognitive and emotional problems in adolescence [27,28].
The values found during August 2023–February 2024 reflect the variability in the different criterion pollutants, such as PM2.5. The AQS scores ranged between 60 and 80 in all months except August. This reflects the uncertainty in the mixtures of the different pollutants that comprise these criterion indicators, such as VOCs, which were highest in January and February 2024. ATMOTUBE® detects a wide range of pollutants and volatile organic compounds. The cumulative parameter called the Air Quality Score (AQS) provides an instant understanding of the surrounding air quality. The AQS ranges from 0 (very polluted air) to 100 (very clean air) points. The AQS calculation is performed with an algorithm that incorporates threshold values for particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The average values were between 60 and 80 in all months except August, which indicates a moderate quality (61–80) according to the AQS. They reflect the expected values for PM1 of 14 to 34 µg/m3, PM2.5 of 20 to 50 µg/m3, PM10 of 30 to 75 µg/m3, and VOCs of 0.3 to 1 ppm [19], which are coincident with some values according to Table 2. However, a limitation is that the data did not present a normal distribution, so no conclusion could be reached. Nevertheless, it could be valuable to follow and measure the reliability of the AQS of ATMOTUBE® as a predictor of these contaminants [23]. Meteorological variables, such as precipitation, temperature, relative humidity, barometric pressure, solar radiation, and wind speed and direction, play an essential role in the dispersion of contaminated air and are known to increase the risk of COPD, rhinitis, pharyngitis, and cardiovascular diseases. There is an inverse relationship between the concentration of PM2.5 and temperature; hence, the concentration of PM2.5 increases exponentially with a decrease in temperature. This could be because a low temperature restricts the efficient vertical dispersion of pollutants in the atmosphere. Likewise, at low wind speeds and temperatures, pollutants do not disperse and are trapped below the boundary layer, which leads to a higher concentration of pollutants at the ground level [29]. As such, one explanation for the significant decrease in pollutants in October could be the greater dispersion of pollutants due to wind speed and direction, given that the evidence indicates that these two variables can cause pollutants to disperse faster [29].
These data are useful for initiating actions to monitor the health of vulnerable groups, such as children and adolescents, who are vulnerable populations due to their stages of growth. Their organs are still developing, they breathe more rapidly than adults, and they are closer to the ground, where pollutants reach maximum concentrations. According to the WHO, a total of 600,000 children died from acute respiratory tract infections caused by polluted air in 2016. Furthermore, it is estimated that the number of deaths caused by pollution will increase by more than 50% before 2050 if sufficient measures are not taken [27,30].
Exposure to PM2.5 and PM10 particles can cause lung and cardiovascular diseases and increase mortality. The recent update of the criteria set the new annual primary standard, which came into force on 6 May 2024, at 9 µg per cubic meter (μg/m3), compared with the previous standard of 12 μg/m3. The impact is greater on the vulnerable population: children, adolescents, and the elderly [3,4,31,32]. In addition, this exposure and health risk violates the rights of children to have access to a healthy environment, which is part of the Universal Human Rights instated on 28 July 2022, as well as Article 4 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States [28].
Ladrilleras del Refugio is a rural community relocated in the 1980s to an area that has now been reached by the city’s urbanization four decades later. More than 200 families in this community make a living from this activity, so data help us gain certainty. Social interventions, such as the current air quality monitoring program (Supplementary Materials, S: Highlights), benefit Ladrilleras del Refugio, which has been considered a poverty area [8] due to its economic, educational, social, and health conditions, mainly encountering problems such as educational lag and malnutrition due to excess and deficiency, alongside lung problems due to exposure to environmental contaminants derived from the community’s economic activity. The authors of [10,11] have studied the Ladrilleras del Refugio community since 2014, finding several health problems, including malnutrition, anemia, and food insecurity. Some research on a population exposed to contaminants in water has found that having a good nutritional status reduces health impacts, mainly for the vulnerable population. This is because consuming a diet with an adequate supply of vitamins, minerals, proteins, etc., provides people with the nutrients required to generate the antioxidant processes that respond to processes that increase inflammation. Exposure to PM1 and PM2.5 impacts the kidneys; therefore, the diet should contribute to preserving adequate kidney function when experiencing this type of exposure [3,31].
Some data for PM2.5 showed higher values than those for PM10, which could be due to the polygonal characteristic of the rural community, divided into 30 hectares, featuring 198 brick kilns. However, seven of these have been eliminated due to the implementation of low-CO2-emission technology (new ovens, i.e., “MK2”). This equipment may need to be tested in highly contaminated environments such as the community studied. This could be a strength of this study, which tested the equipment in a highly contaminated environment alongside measuring conditions such as wind speed. Few studies have been conducted in rural communities with these characteristics, so these findings contribute to monitoring this economic sector and the health of the population, mainly vulnerable groups. Meanwhile, evidence indicates that changes in meteorological conditions significantly affect the content of impurities in the atmosphere. Thus, other studies should assess the wind regime, e.g., the structure of the movement of air masses [33,34].
Discussing food insecurity is necessary to provide solutions to populations exposed to the main pollutants. This is because vulnerable populations (i.e., children, older adults, and pregnant women) who are continuously exposed to polluting particles (PM2.5 and PM10) have a higher risk of developing different types of cancer (such as leukemia), premature newborns, and kidney and cardiovascular diseases that could worsen the impact on health if people also have food insecurity, mainly of a severe type [32]. It is known that households experiencing some level of food insecurity cannot access micronutrients from fruits, legumes, vegetables, cereals, and other main sources of micro- and macronutrients [31]. Experiencing food security means having metabolic conditions during exposure to different contaminants. PM2.5 is a mixture of different toxic metals, such as fluorine and the metalloid arsenic. A study found that supplementation with quelites, vitamins, and a nutritional diet based on regional foods was related to increased urinary excretion of these toxins in young people in Guanajuato, Mexico [35,36].
The importance of governance in food security can be achieved with participation, legality, transparency, responsibility, consensus, equity, effectiveness, efficiency, and governmental and intersectoral sensitivity. Food security requires intersectoral actions in terms of coordination and coherence of sectoral policies and available resources. The governance of food security must be carried out considering its complexity (including health, economic, cultural, educational, social, political, and environmental aspects), mainly in vulnerable groups, since a society cannot be fully democratic if inequality, discrimination, and violence exist. According to these first results, and as indicated by the evidence, the effects on health in brickyards justify measuring the main air pollutants generated by brick production and generating an inventory of air pollutants using portable monitors, such as ATMOTUBE. However, other technological alternatives could allow monitoring and designing a pilot citizen platform to map health risks in a rural community [10]. In October 2022, the Government of Guanajuato began a pilot-phase strategy to implement technology that reduces emissions by 60 to 70% in this rural community. This is timely given the findings presented, which reflect a health risk and high variability that call for actions to integrate and measure the sources causing them, such as the materials used for burning, burning schedules, behavior, and the different producers’ attitudes toward this transition and regulation [17]. Studies have also shown that reducing the amount of air pollution is associated with an attenuated rate of decline in lung function from the early stages of adulthood [32,33].
Although this study did not measure and monitor the burning material and, therefore, the composition of pollutants of particulate origin (PM1, PM2.5, and PM10), it provides a basis to initiate monitoring while considering this information. This can be observed in Islam et al.’s study [37], which quantified heavy metal pollution, its sources, and the environmental risk assessment of agricultural lands on the edges of roads. They found that the origin of the main pollutants came from road traffic and industrial environments by using pollution indices and estimating the level of risk for environmental health based on the chronic daily intake (CDI), risk quotient (HQ), and risk index (HI) for adults and children. This may be useful for observing additional increases in substantial concentrations of heavy metals in the soils of this rural community. Another variable to consider studying is seasonal behavior with long-term follow-up for these pollutants [38], which will strengthen the methodology of a surveillance system for environmental impacts with the governmental strategy to serve the brick sector of the rural community of “Las Ladrilleras del Refugio”, as well as the entire economic sector that manufactures brick in the state of Guanajuato.
Finally, transparency is a mechanism of citizen participation and transparency on the part of government actions, such as in this study, where technological transformation processes with low-emission brick kilns were carried out. Moreover, measuring air quality is a surveillance mechanism. As such, this initial study should be expanded and improved. Regarding the main outcomes of this pilot study, control variables and other measurements should be considered to add information on wind speed, wind direction, and the distances between the school and high school and brick kiln to continue measuring the main pollutants. Furthermore, the sources and materials used as fuel for the brick kilns could be mapped [39].

5. Conclusions

This pilot study measured the main air pollutants generated from brick-kilning production using a low-cost sensor (ATMOTUBE®) in a rural community. It identified that during September 2023, the measured values for PM2.5 and PM10 were outside the norm, and high temperature values (T° 26.2 ± 1.42) were presented. The AQS scores were between 60 and 80 in all months except August, which had the highest values.
Some limitations of this study were the use of a single low-cost sensor and the relatively short monitoring duration. Variables such as wind speed and wind direction were neglected. The results contribute to generating data, integrating proposals for citizen participation, and preventing impacts on the health of the vulnerable population, especially the inhabitants of this brick-producing community. Therefore, implementing an air quality surveillance and monitoring program will allow the development of health and nutrition indicators.

Supplementary Materials

The supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/cli13010013/s1, S: Highlights.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the author upon request.

Acknowledgments

I am thankful to the OpenAQ Community Ambassador Program Cohort (2023), the sponsors of the ATMOTUBE equipment, and mainly Colleen Marciel F. Rosales, the Strategic Partnerships Director at OpenAQ, for their mentorship and providing edits and guidance for this document. Special thanks to Jazmin Hernández-García, who collaborated with the “Platform of Citizen Air Quality Surveillance System (PCAQS)” as a member of the Observatorio Universitario de Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional del Estado de Guanajuato (OUSANEG).

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. INECC. Análisis de Mercado del Sector de la Construcción y Proyecto Piloto a Nivel Región. Basado en el Portafolio de Políticas Públicas con el Objetivo de Reducir los Contaminantes Climáticos de vida Corta (CCVC) de Ladrilleras Artesanales en México; Informe Final; Instituto Nacional de Ecología y Cambio Climático (INECC): Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  2. Manisalidis, I.; Stavropoulou, E.; Stavropoulos, A.; Bezirtzoglou, E. Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review. Front. Public Health 2020, 8, 14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Chen, C.; Li, T.; Wang, L.; Qi, J.; Shi, W.; He, M.Z.; Sun, Q.; Wang, J.; Zhu, H.; Shi, X. Short-term Exposure to Fine Particles and Risk of Cause-Specific Mortality—China, 2013–2018. China CDC Wkly. 2019, 1, 8–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Chen, C.; Zhu, P.; Lan, L.; Zhou, L.; Liu, R.; Sun, Q.; Ban, J.; Wang, W.; Xu, D.; Li, T. Short-term exposures to PM2.5 and cause-specific mortality of cardiovascular health in China. Environ. Res. 2018, 161, 188–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. David, E.; Niculescu, V. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) as Environmental Pollutants: Occurrence and Mitigation Using Nanomaterials. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 13147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Pandey, P.; Yadav, R. A Review on Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) as Environmental Pollutants: Fate and Distribution. Int. J. Plant Environ. 2018, 4, 14–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. INEGI. Industria de la Construcción en Datos. 2023. Available online: https://www.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/889463914709.pdf (accessed on 10 November 2024).
  8. INEGI. 2020. Available online: https://www.cuentame.inegi.org.mx/monografias/informacion/gto/poblacion/default.aspx (accessed on 10 November 2024).
  9. Shamah-Levy, T.; Vielma-Orozco, E.; Heredia-Hernández, O.; Romero-Martínez, M.; Mojica-Cuevas, J.; Cuevas-Nasu, L.; Santaella-Castell, J.A.; Rivera-Dommarco, J. Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2018–19: Resultados Nacionales; Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública: Cuernavaca, México, 2020; Available online: https://ensanut.insp.mx/encuestas/ensanut2018/doctos/informes/ensanut_2018_informe_final.pdf (accessed on 18 July 2024).
  10. Hernández-García, M.J.; Monroy-Torres, R. Las Ladrilleras: Un abordaje y reflexión desde Nutrición ambiental y la segu-ridad alimentaria. REDICINAySA 2022, 11, 29–34. Available online: https://www.ugto.mx/campusleon/dcs/images/redicinaysa/publicaciones/2022/REDICINAYSA-VOL.-11-NO.-5-SEPTIEMBRE-OCTUBRE-2022.pdf (accessed on 20 October 2024).
  11. Aguilera-Pizano, A. Contribución del Sector Ladrillero a la Contaminación Atmosférica Empleando el Modelo de Gaussiano y su Impacto a la Salud de la Población: Caso de Estudio de las Ladrilleras del Refugio en la Ciudad de León, Guanajuato. Jóvenes en la Cienc. 2021, 10. Available online: https://www.jovenesenlaciencia.ugto.mx/index.php/jovenesenlaciencia/article/view/3407 (accessed on 10 July 2024).
  12. Grant, T.; Brigham, E.P.; McCormack, M.C. Childhood Origins of Adult Lung Disease as Opportunities for Prevention. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. Pract. 2020, 8, 849–858. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Bhat, M.S.; Afeefa, Q.S.; Ashok, K.P.; Bashir, A.G. Brick kiln emissions and its environmental impact: A Review. J. Ecol. Nat. Environ. 2014, 6, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Kampa, M.; Castanas, E. Human health effects of air pollution. Environ. Pollut. 2008, 151, 362–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Chien, V.C.; Chai, S.K.; Hai, D.N.; Takaro, T.; Checkoway, H.; Keifer, M.; Hong Son, P.; Van Trung, L.; Barnhart, S. Pneumoconiosis among workers in a Vietnamese refractory brick facility. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2002, 42, 397–402. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Monroy-Torres, R. El acceso a la información y la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, un derecho para avanzar al derecho a la salud y a la alimentación. Rev. INAI Soc. Transparencia 2023, 8, 28–56. Available online: https://revista.inai.org.mx/sociedadytransparencia08/?page_id=503 (accessed on 7 May 2024).
  17. Gobierno del Estado de Guanajuato. Decreto Gubernamental en el que se Instala la Comisión Mixta para la Atención del sector Ladrillero en el Estado de Guanajuato. 2022. Available online: https://archive.org/details/2022-gobierno-gto-acuerdo-comision-mixta-atencion-sector-ladrillero-estado-guana (accessed on 9 May 2024).
  18. WHO. Overview of Methods to Assess Population Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar]
  19. EPA. Air Sensor Toolbox. [Internet]. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/air-sensor-toolbox (accessed on 20 February 2024).
  20. Brook, R.D.; Rajagopalan, S.; Al-Kindi, S. Public Health Relevance of US EPA Air Quality Index Activity Recommendations. JAMA Netw. Open 2024, 7, e245292. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [PubMed Central]
  21. CONAPO. Guanajuato: Indicadores Demográficos, 1990–2030. Base de Datos. Secretaría de Desarrollo Social y Humano. 2020. Available online: https://web.archive.org/web/20240415032131/https://portalsocial.guanajuato.gob.mx/documentos/guanajuato-indicadores-demogr%C3%A1ficos-1990-2030 (accessed on 5 November 2024).
  22. Plataforma Nacional de Transparencia (PNT). Available online: https://archive.org/details/ref-22-plataforma-de-transparencia-y-aceso-a-la-informacion-pnt (accessed on 20 September 2024).
  23. ATMOTUBE® SCORE. 2024. Available online: https://atmotube.com/atmotube-support/what-is-air-quality-score-aqs (accessed on 20 February 2024).
  24. EPA. Final Updates to the Air Quality Index (AQI) for Particulate Matter Fact Sheet and Common Questions. 2024. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-02/pm-naaqs-air-quality-index-fact-sheet.pdf (accessed on 18 September 2024).
  25. EPA. What Are Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)? 2024. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/what-are-volatile-organic-compounds-vocs (accessed on 5 November 2024).
  26. ATMOTUBE® VOCs. 2024. Available online: https://atmotube.com/air-quality-essentials/what-are-vocs#:~:text=VOCs%20originate%20from%20a%20number,[email protected] (accessed on 18 September 2024).
  27. NIH (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences). La Contaminación del Aire y Su Salud. Available online: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/enfermedades/contaminacion/index.cfm (accessed on 12 April 2024).
  28. PNUD. ¿Qué es el Derecho a un Medio Ambiente Saludable? 2024. Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/climatechange/information-materials/r2heinfofinalweb-sp.pdf (accessed on 12 April 2024).
  29. Vaishali; Verma, G.; Das, R.M. Influence of Temperature and Relative Humidity on PM2.5 Concentration over Delhi. MAPAN 2023, 38, 759–769. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. PAHO/WHO. Contaminación del aire Ambiental Exterior y en la Vivienda: Preguntas Frecuentes. 2018. Available online: https://www.paho.org/es/temas/calidad-aire-salud/contaminacion-aire-ambiental-exterior-vivienda-preguntas-frecuentes#:~:text=La%20exposici%C3%B3n%20se%20ha%20relacionado (accessed on 2 May 2024).
  31. Downs, S.H.; Schindler, C.; Liu, L.J.; Keidel, D.; Bayer-Oglesby, L.; Brutsche, M.H.; Probst-Hensch, N.M.; Tschopp, J.M.; Zellweger, J.P.; Rochat, T.; et al. Reduced exposure to PM10 and attenuated age-related decline in lung function. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007, 357, 2338–2347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Gauderman, W.J.; Urman, R.; Avol, E.; Berhane, K.; McConnell, R.; Rappaport, E.; Chang, R.; Lurmann, F.; Gilliland, F. Association of improved air quality with lung development in children. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 372, 905–913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Pérez, R.D.A.; Taborda, N.A.; Gómez-Gallego, D.M.; Valderrama, J.F.N.; Porras, J.; Hernández, J.C. Inflammatory effects of particulate matter air pollution. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2020, 27, 42390–42404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Shikhovtsev, M.Y.; Molozhnikova, Y.V.; Obolkin, V.A.; Potemkin, V.L.; Lutskin, E.S.; Khodzher, T.V. Features of Temporal Variability of the Concentrations of Gaseous Trace Pollutants in the Air of the Urban and Rural Areas in the Southern Baikal Region (East Siberia, Russia). Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 8327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Pizzino, G.; Irrera, N.; Cucinotta, M.; Pallio, G.; Mannino, F.; Arcoraci, V.; Squadrito, F.; Altavilla, D.; Bitto, A. Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2017, 2017, 8416763. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Santiago-Saenz, Y.O.; López-Palestina, C.U.; Gutiérrez-Tlahque, J.; Monroy-Torres, R.; Pinedo-Espinoza, J.M.; Hernández-Fuentes, A.D. Nutritional and functional evaluation of three powder mixtures based on Mexican quelites: Alternative ingredients to formulate food supplements. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 40, 1029–1037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Islam, S.; Sarker, M.E.; Mozammal Hoque, M.M.; Kabir, M.H.; Ahmed, F.T.; Hossain, M.N. Quantification of heavy metals concentration and assessment of Ecological health risk in roadside agricultural land of Dhaka-Aricha highway, Bangladesh. Iran. J. Earth Sci. 2024, 16, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Mukta, T.; Hoque, M.M.; Sarker, M.; Hossain, M.; Biswas, G. Seasonal variations of gaseous air pollutants (SO2, NO2, O3, CO) and particulates (PM2.5, PM10) in Gazipur: An industrial city in Bangladesh. Adv. Environ. Technol. 2020, 6, 195–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Singh, D.; Dahiya, M.; Kumar, R.; Nanda, C. Sensors and systems for air quality assessment monitoring and management: A review. J. Environ. Manag. 2021, 289, 112510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Climate 13 00013 g001
Figure 1. Ladrilleras del Refugio, located in Leon City, and map of Guanajuato.
Figure 1. Ladrilleras del Refugio, located in Leon City, and map of Guanajuato.
Climate 13 00013 g001
Climate 13 00013 g002
Figure 2. Map of Ladrilleras del Refugio community (scale: 1:5000).
Figure 2. Map of Ladrilleras del Refugio community (scale: 1:5000).
Climate 13 00013 g002
Climate 13 00013 g003aClimate 13 00013 g003b
Figure 3. Variability in the different variables per month from August 2023 to February 2024 (Figure (a–h)). Schemes of main parameters’ measurements with ATMOTUBE monitor sensor (monthly).
Figure 3. Variability in the different variables per month from August 2023 to February 2024 (Figure (a–h)). Schemes of main parameters’ measurements with ATMOTUBE monitor sensor (monthly).
Climate 13 00013 g003aClimate 13 00013 g003b
Climate 13 00013 g004aClimate 13 00013 g004b
Figure 4. (a,b). Distance between the Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez primary school and high school (Telesecundaria #961), both in the Ladrilleras del Refugio community (taken from Google Maps on 10 March 2024). Coordinates: top left (−101.5585012218824, 21.082701559088466); top right (−101.54820153926771, 21.082701559088466); bottom left (−101.5585012218824, 21.08639044562903); bottom right (−101.54820153926771, 21.08639044562903) (110201006, http://gaia.inegi.org.mx/mdm6/?s=MTM3Njg5Mj , accessed on 10 December 2024). (c). Distance between high school and brick kiln. (d). Proximity between schools and first brick kilns. (e). Geolocation and mapping of the community environment.
Figure 4. (a,b). Distance between the Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez primary school and high school (Telesecundaria #961), both in the Ladrilleras del Refugio community (taken from Google Maps on 10 March 2024). Coordinates: top left (−101.5585012218824, 21.082701559088466); top right (−101.54820153926771, 21.082701559088466); bottom left (−101.5585012218824, 21.08639044562903); bottom right (−101.54820153926771, 21.08639044562903) (110201006, http://gaia.inegi.org.mx/mdm6/?s=MTM3Njg5Mj , accessed on 10 December 2024). (c). Distance between high school and brick kiln. (d). Proximity between schools and first brick kilns. (e). Geolocation and mapping of the community environment.
Climate 13 00013 g004aClimate 13 00013 g004b
Table 1. Average values of main criterion pollutants and other variables recorded monthly with ATMOTUBE® monitor.
Table 1. Average values of main criterion pollutants and other variables recorded monthly with ATMOTUBE® monitor.
MonthVOC
mg/m3		AQST°H%Pressure, mbarPM1, µg/m3PM2.5 µg/m3PM10, µg/m3
x ± standard deviation (SD)
August 20230.14 ± 0.0491.2 ± 2.3925.5 ± 0.4937.1 ± 3.14822.1 ± 1.083.6 ± 1.355.2 ± 1.655.2 ± 2.26
September 20230.3 ± 0.4582.9 ± 10.5326.2 ± 1.4237.1 ± 7.0821.3 ± 3.177.3 ± 2.699 ± 23.9110.2 ± 24.05
October 20230.10 ± 0.0687.9 ± 4.2724.7 ± 1.2837.3 ± 7.21820. ± 2.8131.9 ± 4.082.3 ± 4.603.4 ± 4.63
November 20230.23 ± 0.1685.1 ± 6.3223.5 ± 1.9537.1 ± 7.72820.3 ± 7.975.3 ± 5.396.9 ± 5.958.1 ± 6.2
December 20230.24 ± 0.1384.6 ± 6.9620.1 ± 6.9642.9 ± 6.48823.1 ± 10.905.2 ± 8.216.5 ± 9.027.6 ± 9.16
January 20241.3 ± 5.5476.8 ± 22.0820.9 ± 2.8634.1 ± 5.22831.6 ± 36.975 ± 8.256.5 ± 9.057.7 ± 9.38
February 20246.17 ± 15.1860.6 ± 32.7122.1 ± 2.6635.1 ± 8.03834.5 ± 36.153.9 ± 25.24.8 ± 26.85.9 ± 26.8
Medium + SD4.15 ± 11.7965.17 ± 30.1121.88 ± 3.0334.04 ± 6.77834.8 ± 40.604.90 ± 18.436.12 ± 19.707.27 ± 19.82
Table 2. Inventory of emissions of main pollutants generated in brick manufacturing by producers from Guanajuato in 2021 (tons per year).
Table 2. Inventory of emissions of main pollutants generated in brick manufacturing by producers from Guanajuato in 2021 (tons per year).
Average of
State Emissions		Pollutants
Ozone Criteria and Precursors		Greenhouse Gases
PM10PM2.5SO2NOxCOTOC *CH4CO2N2OCO2eqCO2 (quantified but not reported)
1827175716415013,29512,0510.04826715.912,479178,925
* TOC = total organic carbon.
Table 3. Pollutants from burning biomass (firewood) as fuel used in brick kilns in 2023.
Table 3. Pollutants from burning biomass (firewood) as fuel used in brick kilns in 2023.
Pollutants
Ozone Criteria and Precursors (tons/year)		Greenhouse Gases
(tons/year)
PM10PM2.5SO2NOxCOTOC *CH4N2OCO2 (quantified but not reported)CO2eq
308.63297.113.5723.192253.182042.670.002.6830,327.86709.14
* TOC = total organic carbon.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Monroy-Torres, R. A Pilot Study on the Main Air Pollutants in a Rural Community in Guanajuato, Mexico, Using a Low-Cost ATMOTUBE® Monitor. Climate 2025, 13, 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13010013

AMA Style

Monroy-Torres R. A Pilot Study on the Main Air Pollutants in a Rural Community in Guanajuato, Mexico, Using a Low-Cost ATMOTUBE® Monitor. Climate. 2025; 13(1):13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13010013

Chicago/Turabian Style

Monroy-Torres, Rebeca. 2025. "A Pilot Study on the Main Air Pollutants in a Rural Community in Guanajuato, Mexico, Using a Low-Cost ATMOTUBE® Monitor" Climate 13, no. 1: 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13010013

APA Style

Monroy-Torres, R. (2025). A Pilot Study on the Main Air Pollutants in a Rural Community in Guanajuato, Mexico, Using a Low-Cost ATMOTUBE® Monitor. Climate, 13(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli13010013

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop