Climatic Trends in Different Bioclimatic Zones in the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Climate Analysis
2.3. Data Management
2.4. Trend Analysis
2.5. Lapse Rate of Temperature and Precipitation
3. Result
3.1. Annual Trend of Precipitation
3.2. Precipitation Trends in Different Decades
3.3. Annual Trend of Temperature
3.4. Temperatures in Different Decades
3.5. Average Annual Temperature and Precipitation
3.6. Lapse Rate of Temperature and Precipitation Lapse Rate
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Station Name | Station ID | Station Type | District | Latitude | Longitude | Altitude (m) | Data Available |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower tropical bioclimatic zone (<500 m) | |||||||
Dumkauli | 706 | Agro-meteorology | Nawalparasi | 28.1 | 84.22 | 154 | 1976 |
Simari | 728 | Climatology | Nawalparasi | 28.12 | 83.75 | 154 | 1981 |
Chapakot | 810 | Climatology | Syangja | 27.88 | 83.82 | 460 | 1979 |
Rampur | 902 | Agro-meteorology | Chitwan | 28.02 | 84.42 | 256 | 1970 |
Hetauda NFI | 906 | Climatology | Makawanpur | 27.68 | 85.05 | 474 | 1971 |
Upper tropical bioclimatic zone (500–1000 m) | |||||||
Baglung | 605 | Climatology | Baglung | 27.93 | 83.6 | 984 | 1978 |
Beni bazar | 609 | Climatology | Myagdi | 27.53 | 83.57 | 835 | 1989 |
Kusma | 614 | Climatology | Parbat | 28.28 | 83.7 | 891 | 1989 |
Khudi bazar | 802 | Climatology | Lamjung | 28.3 | 84.37 | 823 | 1970 |
Pokhara airport | 804 | aeronautical | Kaski | 28.03 | 84.0 | 827 | 1970 |
Syangja | 805 | Climatology | Syangja | 27.62 | 83.88 | 868 | 1976 |
Malepatan | 811 | Agro-meteorology | Kaski | 27.92 | 84.12 | 856 | 1970 |
Khairenitar | 815 | Climatology | Tanahu | 28.1 | 84.1 | 500 | 1970 |
Lower subtropical bioclimatic zone (1000–1500 m) | |||||||
Tansen | 702 | Climatology | Palpa | 28.22 | 83.53 | 1067 | 1972 |
Gorkha | 809 | Agro-meteorology | Gorkha | 28 | 84.62 | 1097 | 1970 |
Nuwakot | 1004 | Climatology | Nuwakot | 27.93 | 85.02 | 1003 | 1970 |
Pensayakhola | 1057 | Climatology | Nuwakot | 28.28 | 85.12 | 1240 | 1975 |
Upper subtropical bioclimatic zone (1500–2000 m) | |||||||
Khachikot | 715 | Climatology | Arghakhanchi | 28 | 83.15 | 1760 | 1977 |
Tamghas | 725 | Climatology | Gulmi | 27.88 | 83.25 | 1530 | 1981 |
Lumle | 814 | Agro-meteorology | Kaski | 27.8 | 83.8 | 1740 | 1970 |
Dhunche | 1055 | Climatology | Rasuwa | 28.1 | 85.3 | 1982 | 1989 |
Temperate bio climatic zone (2000–2500 m) | |||||||
Jomsom | 601 | Climatology | Mustang | 27.87 | 83.72 | 2744 | 1970 |
Thakmarpha | 604 | Agro-meteorology | Mustang | 27.68 | 83.7 | 2566 | 1970 |
Daman | 905 | Climatology | Makawanpur | 27.87 | 85.08 | 2314 | 1972 |
Lete | 607 | Climatology | Mustang | 28.07 | 83.6 | 2384 | 1998 |
Kakani | 1007 | Agro-meteorology | Nuwakot | 28.07 | 85.25 | 2064 | 1972 |
Appendix B
Station Name | Station ID | Station Type | District | Latitude | Longitude | Altitude |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower tropical bioclimatic zone (<500 m) | ||||||
Ridi bazar | 701 | Precipitation | Gulmi | 27.95 | 83.43 | 442 |
Beluwa (girwari) | 704 | Precipitation | Nawalparasi | 27.68 | 84.05 | 150 |
Dumkauli | 706 | Agrometeorology | Nawalparasi | 27.68 | 84.22 | 154 |
Dumkibas | 710 | Precipitation | Nawalparasi | 27.58 | 83.87 | 164 |
Chapkot | 810 | Climatology | Syangja | 27.88 | 83.82 | 460 |
Damauli | 817 | Climatology | Tanahun | 27.97 | 84.28 | 358 |
Rampur | 902 | Agrometeorology | Chitawan | 27.62 | 84.42 | 256 |
Jhawani | 903 | Precipitation | Chitawan | 27.58 | 84.53 | 270 |
Hetaundan.f.i. | 906 | Climatology | Makwanpur | 27.42 | 85.05 | 474 |
Beluwa(manahari) | 920 | Precipitation | Makwanpur | 27.55 | 84.82 | 274 |
Bharatpur | 927 | Climatology | Chitawan | 27.67 | 84.43 | 205 |
Upper tropical bioclimatic zone (500–1000 m) | ||||||
Baglung | 605 | Climatology | Baglung | 28.27 | 83.60 | 984 |
Beni bazar | 609 | Climatology | Myagdi | 28.35 | 83.57 | 835 |
Kushma | 614 | Climatology | Parbat | 28.22 | 83.70 | 891 |
Garakot | 726 | Precipitation | Palpa | 27.87 | 83.80 | 500 |
Khudi bazar | 802 | Climatology | Lamjung | 28.28 | 84.37 | 823 |
Pokhara airport | 804 | Aeronatical | Kaski | 28.22 | 84.00 | 827 |
Syangja | 805 | Climatology | Syangia | 28.10 | 83.88 | 868 |
Kunchha | 807 | Precipitation | Lamiung | 28.13 | 84.35 | 855 |
Bandipur | 808 | Climatology | Tanahun | 27.93 | 84.42 | 965 |
Malepatan | 811 | Agrometeorology | Kaski | 28.12 | 84.12 | 856 |
Khairinitar | 815 | Agrometeorology | Tanahun | 28.03 | 84.10 | 500 |
Arughatbazar | 1002 | Precipitation | Dhading | 28.05 | 84.82 | 518 |
Lower subtropical bioclimatic zone (1000–1500 m) | ||||||
Tatopani | 606 | Precipitation | Myagdi | 28.48 | 83.65 | 1243 |
Tansen | 702 | Climatology | Palpa | 27.87 | 83.53 | 1067 |
Musikot | 722 | Precipitation | Gulmi | 28.17 | 83.27 | 1280 |
Jagat (setibas) | 801 | Precipitation | Gorkha | 28.37 | 84.90 | 1334 |
Gorkha | 809 | Agrometeorology | Gorkha | 28.00 | 84.62 | 1097 |
Lamachaur | 818 | Precipitation | Kaski | 28.27 | 83.97 | 1070 |
Pamdur | 830 | Precipitation | Kaski | 28.27 | 84.78 | 1160 |
Makwanpurgadhi | 919 | Precipitation | Makwanpur | 27.42 | 85.17 | 1030 |
Nuwakot | 1004 | Climatology | Nuwakot | 27.92 | 85.17 | 1003 |
Dhading | 1005 | Precipitation | Dhading | 27.87 | 84.93 | 1420 |
Pansayakhola | 1057 | Precipitation | Nuwakot | 28.02 | 85.12 | 1240 |
Upper subtropical bioclimatic zone (1500–2000 m) | ||||||
Karki neta | 613 | Precipitation | Parbat | 28.18 | 83.75 | 1720 |
Khanchikot | 715 | Climatology | Arghakhanchi | 27.93 | 83.15 | 1760 |
Tamghas | 725 | Climatology | Gulmi | 28.07 | 83.25 | 1530 |
Lumle | 814 | Agrometeorology | Kaski | 28.30 | 83.80 | 1740 |
Ghandruk | 821 | Precipitation | Kaski | 28.38 | 83.80 | 1960 |
Chisapanigadhi | 904 | Precipitation | Makwanpur | 27.55 | 85.13 | 1706 |
Markhugaun | 915 | Precipitation | Makwanpur | 27.62 | 85.15 | 1530 |
Timure | 1001 | Climatology | Rasuwa | 28.28 | 85.38 | 1900 |
Thamachit | 1054 | Precipitation | Rasuwa | 28.17 | 85.32 | 1847 |
Dhunche | 1055 | Climatology | Rasuwa | 28.10 | 85.30 | 1982 |
Lower temperate bioclimatic zone (2000–2500 m) | ||||||
Lete | 607 | Climatology | Mustang | 28.63 | 83.60 | 2384 |
Bobang | 615 | Precipitation | Baglung | 28.40 | 83.10 | 2273 |
Daman | 905 | Climatology | Makwanpur | 27.60 | 85.08 | 2314 |
Kakani | 1007 | Agrometeorology | Nuwakot | 27.80 | 85.25 | 2064 |
Upper temperate bioclimatic zone (2500–3000 m) | ||||||
Jomsom | 601 | Climatology | Mustang | 28.78 | 83.72 | 2744 |
Thakmarpha | 604 | Agrometeorology | Mustang | 28.75 | 83.70 | 2566 |
Gurjakhani | 616 | Climatology | Myagdi | 28.60 | 83.22 | 2530 |
Chame | 816 | Climatology | Manang | 28.55 | 84.23 | 2680 |
Lower subalpine bioclimatic zone (3000–3500 m) | ||||||
Ghami (mustang) | 610 | Precipitation | Mustang | 29.05 | 83.88 | 3465 |
Manangbhot | 820 | Climatology | Manang | 28.67 | 84.02 | 3420 |
Alpine bioclimatic zone (3500–4000 m) | ||||||
Ranipauwa (m.nath) | 608 | Precipitation | Mustang | 28.82 | 83.88 | 3609 |
Mustang(lomangthang | 612 | Climatology | Mustang | 29.18 | 83.97 | 3705 |
Larkesamdo | 806 | Precipitation | Gorkha | 28.67 | 84.62 | 3650 |
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Bioclimatic Zones | Precipitation Stations | Temperature Stations |
---|---|---|
LTBZ (<500 m) | 14(11) | 6(5) |
UTBZ (500–1000 m) | 16(11) | 10(8) |
LSBZ (1000–1500 m) | 16(10) | 4(4) |
USBZ (1500–2000 m) | 14(8) | 5(4) |
TBZ (2000–3000 m) | 10(7) | 7(5) |
LABZ (3000–3500 m) | 3(2) | - |
ABZ (>3500 m) | 8(3) | - |
Total | 81(52) | 32(26) |
Bioclimatic Zones | 1970–1979 | 1980–1989 | 1990–1999 | 2000–2009 | 2010–2019 | Trends between 1970–2019 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sen’s Slope Per Year | p Value (Mann- Kendall Test) | Significance | ||||||
LTBZ | 1964.4 | 2030.5 | 2022.3 | 2169.3 | 1823.6 | −1.8 | 0.029 | No |
UTBZ | 2620.8 | 2604.6 | 2665.7 | 2677.8 | 2496.3 | −1.98 | 0.47 | No |
LSBZ | 2145.8 | 2216.0 | 2362.1 | 2242.8 | 2152.8 | 0.45 | 0.89 | No |
USBZ | 3222.5 | 3422.9 | 3066.9 | 3105.5 | 2913.79 | −2.06 | 0.03 | Yes |
TBZ | 1230.2 | 1558.1 | 1519.65 | 1498.75 | 1429.25 | 1.81 | 0.002 | Yes |
LABZ | 886.2 | 854.8 | 992.1 | 971.1 | 1056.2 | 1.28 | 0.0001 | Yes |
ABZ | 366.8 | 444.3 | 351.1 | 298.4 | 348.0 | −1.80 | 0.05 | Yes |
Bioclimatic Zones | Sen’s Slope | p Value (Mann-Kendall Test) | Significance |
---|---|---|---|
LTBZ | 0.022 | <0.001 | Yes |
UTBZ | 0.030 | <0.00001 | Yes |
LSBZ | 0.036 | <0.0001 | Yes |
USBZ | 0.042 | <0.00001 | Yes |
TBZ | 0.051 | <0.0001 | Yes |
Bioclimatic Zones | 1979–1989 | 1989–1999 | 1999–2009 | 2009–2019 | 1979–2019 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sen’s Slope | Significance | |||||
LTBZ | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.022 | Yes |
UTBZ | 0.28 | 0.28 | 0.33 | 0.32 | 0.030 | Yes |
LSBZ | 0.17 | 0.39 | 0.44 | 0.42 | 0.036 | Yes |
USBZ | 0.36 | 0.39 | 0.44 | 0.47 | 0.042 | Yes |
TBZ | 0.48 | 0.51 | 0.56 | 0.52 | 0.051 | Yes |
Bioclimatic Zones | AAT (°C) | TLR (°C/500 m) | TLR (°C/km) | ANR (mm) | PLR (mm/500 m) | PLR (mm/km) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lower tropical bioclimatic zone (<500 m) | 24.1 | - | 2002.1 | - | ||
Upper tropical bioclimatic zone (500–1000 m) | 21.8 | −2.3 | −4.6 | 2613.1 | 611 | 1222 |
Lower subtropical bioclimatic zone (1000–1500 m) | 19.7 | −2.1 | −4.2 | 2223.9 | −389.2 | −778.4 |
Upper subtropical bioclimatic zone (1500–2000 m) | 17.5 | −2.2 | −4.4 | 3146.4 | 922.5 | 1845 |
Temperate bio- climatic zone (2000–3000 m) | 13.3 | −2.2 | −4.4 | 1447.2 | −849.6 | −1699.2 |
Lower subalpine bioclimatic zone (3000–3500 m) | 952.1 | −495.1 | −990.2 | |||
Alpine bioclimatic zone (>3500 m) | 361.7 | −590.4 | −1180.8 |
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Luitel, D.R.; Jha, P.K.; Siwakoti, M.; Shrestha, M.L.; Munniappan, R. Climatic Trends in Different Bioclimatic Zones in the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal. Climate 2020, 8, 136. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8110136
Luitel DR, Jha PK, Siwakoti M, Shrestha ML, Munniappan R. Climatic Trends in Different Bioclimatic Zones in the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal. Climate. 2020; 8(11):136. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8110136
Chicago/Turabian StyleLuitel, Dol Raj, Pramod K. Jha, Mohan Siwakoti, Madan Lall Shrestha, and Rangaswamy Munniappan. 2020. "Climatic Trends in Different Bioclimatic Zones in the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal" Climate 8, no. 11: 136. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8110136