Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Biomass Open Burning Emissions in the Greater Mekong Subregion
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Assessment of the Emissions from Biomass Open Burning
2.2. Assessment of the Burnt Area in the GMS
2.2.1. The MODIS Burnt Area Product (MCD45A1)
2.2.2. The MODIS Burnt Area Product (MCD64A1)
2.2.3. Reference Fires
2.2.4. Land Use and Land Cover Mapping
2.2.5. Validation of the MODIS Burnt Area Products with the Reference Fires
2.3. Assessment of the Biomass Load and Combustion Completeness
2.3.1. Agricultural Fires
2.3.2. Forest Fires
2.3.3. Savannah Fires
2.3.4. Grassland and Shrubland Fires
2.4. Assessment of the Spatial and Temporal Distribution of the Burnt Areas and Fire Emissions
3. Results
3.1. Assessment of the MCD45A1 and MCD64A1 in the GMS
3.2. Detection Rate of the MODIS Products and Correction Factor
3.3. Spatial and Monthly Temporal Distribution of the Burnt Areas
3.4. Estimation of the Burnt Area in the GMS
3.5. Estimation of Air Pollutant Emissions in the GMS
3.6. Spatial Distribution of PM2.5 Emissions
3.7. Comparison with the Global Fire Emission Database
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Countries | CO2 from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (Mt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 9 | 36 | 18 | 0 | 0 | 64 |
Cambodia | 9 | 7 | 29 | 1 | 0 | 45 |
Lao PDR. | 2 | 9 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 13 |
Thailand | 14 | 7 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 27 |
Vietnam | 24 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 30 |
GMS | 58 | 61 | 57 | 2 | 0 | 178 |
Countries | CH4 from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 34 | 111 | 21 | 0 | 0 | 167 |
Cambodia | 31 | 21 | 33 | 1 | 0 | 87 |
Lao PDR. | 8 | 27 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 37 |
Thailand | 52 | 20 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 79 |
Vietnam | 87 | 8 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 99 |
GMS | 213 | 188 | 66 | 2 | 0 | 469 |
Countries | N2O from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 1 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
Cambodia | 1 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 |
Lao PDR. | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Thailand | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Vietnam | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
GMS | 4 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 18 |
Countries | CO from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (Mt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
Cambodia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Lao PDR. | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Thailand | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
Vietnam | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
GMS | 4 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 9 |
Countries | NOX from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 18 | 56 | 42 | 1 | 0 | 117 |
Cambodia | 17 | 11 | 66 | 2 | 0 | 96 |
Lao PDR. | 4 | 13 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 23 |
Thailand | 28 | 10 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 51 |
Vietnam | 47 | 4 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 58 |
GMS | 114 | 94 | 133 | 4 | 0 | 345 |
Countries | SO2 from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 2 | 9 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 16 |
Cambodia | 2 | 2 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 12 |
Lao PDR. | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
Thailand | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 7 |
Vietnam | 6 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 8 |
GMS | 15 | 15 | 16 | 0 | 0 | 46 |
Countries | NH3 from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 13 | 29 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 48 |
Cambodia | 12 | 6 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 26 |
Lao PDR. | 3 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 10 |
Thailand | 19 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 27 |
Vietnam | 33 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 36 |
GMS | 79 | 49 | 18 | 1 | 0 | 147 |
Countries | PM2.5 from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS, 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 37 | 200 | 78 | 1 | 0 | 316 |
Cambodia | 34 | 38 | 122 | 4 | 1 | 199 |
Lao PDR. | 8 | 48 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 65 |
Thailand | 57 | 36 | 24 | 1 | 0 | 117 |
Vietnam | 94 | 15 | 13 | 1 | 0 | 123 |
GMS | 230 | 337 | 245 | 7 | 1 | 820 |
Countries | BC from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 4 | 11 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 20 |
Cambodia | 4 | 2 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 13 |
Lao PDR. | 1 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 |
Thailand | 7 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 10 |
Vietnam | 11 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 13 |
GMS | 27 | 19 | 13 | 0 | 0 | 60 |
Countries | OC from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 (kt) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cropland | Forestland | Savannah | Grassland | Shrubland | Total | |
Myanmar | 14 | 103 | 28 | 0 | 0 | 146 |
Cambodia | 12 | 20 | 44 | 1 | 0 | 78 |
Lao PDR. | 3 | 25 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 31 |
Thailand | 21 | 19 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 48 |
Vietnam | 34 | 8 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 47 |
GMS | 84 | 174 | 89 | 3 | 0 | 350 |
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Species | Value of the Emission Factors (g Specie per kg Dry Matter Burnt) 1 | ||
---|---|---|---|
CL | FL | SV, GL, SL | |
CO2 | 1585 (100) | 1643 (58) | 1686 (38) |
CO | 102 (33) | 93 (27) | 63 (17) |
CH4 | 5.82 (3.56) | 5.07 (1.98) | 1.94 (0.85) |
NOX | 3.11 (1.57) | 2.55 (1.40) | 3.9 (0.8) |
N2O | 0.1 (−) | 0.2 (−) | 0.2 (−) |
PM2.5 | 6.26 (2.36) | 9.1 (3.5) | 7.17 (3.42) |
OC | 2.3 (−) | 4.71 (2.73) | 2.62 (1.24) |
BC | 0.75 (−) | 0.52 (0.28) | 0.37 (0.20) |
SO2 | 0.40 (−) | 0.40 (0.19) | 0.48 (0.27) |
NH3 | 2.17 (1.27) | 1.33 (1.21) | 0.52 (0.35) |
Vegetation Types | Biomass Load (t/ha) | Combustion Completeness |
---|---|---|
Cropland | 7.50 (1.90) | 0.39 (0.06) |
Forestland | 4.88 (0.42) | 0.76 (0.02) |
Savannah | 3.88 (0.11) | 0.80 (0.02) |
Grassland | 7.60 (6.50) | 0.81 (0.16) |
Shrubland | 5.30 (2.00) | 0.71 (0.26) |
Countries | Estimation of the Burnt Areas Derived from the MCD45A1 (Mha) 1 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CL | FL | SV | SL | GL | Total | % of BA | |
Myanmar | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.89 | 0.002 | 0.03 | 2.21 | 50% |
Cambodia | 0.43 | 0.04 | 0.83 | 0.002 | 0.06 | 1.37 | 31% |
Lao PDR. | 0.01 | 0.006 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.002 | 0.04 | 1% |
Thailand | 0.41 | 0.10 | 0.17 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.68 | 15% |
Vietnam | 0.07 | 0.003 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.11 | 3% |
GMS | 1.52 | 0.85 | 1.94 | 0.004 | 0.11 | 4.41 | 100% |
% of BA | 34% | 19% | 44% | 0% | 2% | 100% | |
Countries | Estimation of the Burnt Areas Derived from the MCD64A1 (Mha) 1 | ||||||
CL | FL | SV | SL | GL | Total | % of BA | |
Myanmar | 0.39 | 1.77 | 1.65 | 0.001 | 0.02 | 3.82 | 36% |
Cambodia | 0.35 | 0.34 | 2.59 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 3.35 | 31% |
Lao PDR. | 0.09 | 0.42 | 0.20 | 0.00 | 0.004 | 0.71 | 7% |
Thailand | 0.59 | 0.32 | 0.51 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 1.43 | 13% |
Vietnam | 0.98 | 0.13 | 0.27 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 1.40 | 13% |
GMS | 2.40 | 2.98 | 5.21 | 0.008 | 0.11 | 10.70 | 100% |
% of BA | 22% | 28% | 49% | 0% | 1% | 100% |
Vegetation Types 1 | Detection Rate of the MCD64A1 | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gridded Fire Court 2 | Detection Rate (%) | ||||
RF | MCD64A1 | Overlap of the MCD64A1 and RF | Occurrence of RF without the MCD64A1 | ||
SV, GL, and SL | 2382 | 1784 | 1723 | 659 | 72% |
FL | 2019 | 1539 | 1408 | 638 | 70% |
CL | 1964 | 896 | 798 | 1,108 | 41% |
Vegetation Types 1 | Detection Rate of MCD45A1 | ||||
Gridded Fire Court 2 | Detection Rate (%) | ||||
RF | MCD45A1 | Overlap of the MCD45A1 and RF | Occurrence of RF without the MCD45A1 | ||
SV, GL, and SL | 2382 | 847 | 812 | 1566 | 34% |
FL | 2019 | 462 | 425 | 1618 | 21% |
CL | 1964 | 300 | 283 | 1679 | 14% |
Vegetation Types 1 | Validation of the MCD45A1 2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Burnt Area (kha) | MCD45A1/RF | Correction Factor | ||
RF | MCD45A1 | |||
SV, GL, and SL | 2641 | 317 | 0.12 | 8.34 |
FL | 3255 | 217 | 0.07 | 14.99 |
CL | 1194 | 57 | 0.05 | 21.08 |
Total | 7089 | 590 | 0.08 | 12.01 |
Vegetation Types 1 | Validation of the MCD64A1 2 | |||
Burnt Area (kha) | MCD64A1/RF | Correction Factor | ||
RF | MCD64A1 | |||
SV, GL, and SL | 2641 | 1251 | 0.47 | 2.11 |
FL | 3255 | 977 | 0.30 | 3.33 |
CL | 1194 | 229 | 0.19 | 5.21 |
Total | 7089 | 2457 | 0.35 | 2.89 |
Countries | Emission from Biomass Open Burning in the GMS in 2015 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CO2 | CH4 | N2O | CO | NOX | SO2 | NH3 | PM2.5 | BC | OC | |
(Mt) | (kt) | (kt) | (Mt) | (kt) | (kt) | (kt) | (kt) | (kt) | (kt) | |
Myanmar | 64 | 167 | 7 | 3.3 | 117 | 16 | 48 | 316 | 20 | 146 |
(12) | (102) | (1) | (2) | (66) | (10) | (41) | (172) | (12) | (93) | |
Cambodia | 45 | 87 | 5 | 2.0 | 96 | 12 | 26 | 199 | 13 | 78 |
(8) | (61) | (1) | (1) | (42) | (7) | (20) | (116) | (7) | (44) | |
Lao PDR. | 13 | 37 | 1 | 0.7 | 23 | 3 | 10 | 65 | 4 | 31 |
(2) | (22) | (0.5) | (0) | (14) | (2) | (8) | (36) | (3) | (20) | |
Thailand | 27 | 79 | 2 | 1.5 | 51 | 7 | 27 | 117 | 10 | 48 |
(9) | (68) | (0.5) | (1) | (36) | (4) | (21) | (77) | (5) | (27) | |
Vietnam | 30 | 99 | 2 | 1.8 | 58 | 8 | 36 | 123 | 13 | 47 |
(12) | (97) | (0.5) | (1) | (48) | (4) | (27) | (90) | (6) | (22) | |
GMS | 178 | 469 | 18 | 9.4 | 345 | 46 | 147 | 820 | 60 | 350 |
(42) | (351) | (3) | (5) | (206) | (26) | (117) | (489) | (32) | (205) |
Country | PM2.5 Derived from This Study (kt) 1 | PM2.5 Derived from GFED4.1s (kt) 1 | Ratio (This Study/GFED4.1s) 1 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CL | SV, GL, SL | FL | Total | CL | SV, GL, SL | FL | Total | CL | SV, GL, SL | FL | Total | |
Myanmar | 37 | 79 | 200 | 316 | 14 | 368 | 204 | 585 | 2.6 | 0.2 | 1.0 | 0.5 |
Cambodia | 34 | 127 | 38 | 199 | 26 | 232 | 347 | 605 | 1.3 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.3 |
Lao PDR. | 8 | 10 | 48 | 65 | 4 | 155 | 89 | 248 | 2.0 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.3 |
Thailand | 57 | 25 | 36 | 117 | 34 | 196 | 49 | 280 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 0.7 | 0.4 |
Vietnam | 94 | 13 | 15 | 123 | 50 | 93 | 59 | 202 | 1.9 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.6 |
GMS | 230 | 253 | 337 | 820 | 128 | 1043 | 749 | 1920 | 1.8 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
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Junpen, A.; Roemmontri, J.; Boonman, A.; Cheewaphongphan, P.; Thao, P.T.B.; Garivait, S. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Biomass Open Burning Emissions in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Climate 2020, 8, 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8080090
Junpen A, Roemmontri J, Boonman A, Cheewaphongphan P, Thao PTB, Garivait S. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Biomass Open Burning Emissions in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Climate. 2020; 8(8):90. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8080090
Chicago/Turabian StyleJunpen, Agapol, Jirataya Roemmontri, Athipthep Boonman, Penwadee Cheewaphongphan, Pham Thi Bich Thao, and Savitri Garivait. 2020. "Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Biomass Open Burning Emissions in the Greater Mekong Subregion" Climate 8, no. 8: 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8080090