Aerospace

43 pages, 9119 KB

Open AccessArticle

ProVANT Simulator: A Virtual Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platform for Control System Development

by Junio E. Morais, Daniel N. Cardoso, Brenner S. Rego, Richard Andrade, Iuro B. P. Nascimento, Jean C. Pereira, Jonatan M. Campos, Davi F. Santiago, Marcelo A. Santos, Leandro B. Becker, Sergio Esteban and Guilherme V. Raffo

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 762; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090762 (registering DOI) - 25 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper introduces the ProVANT Simulator, a comprehensive environment for developing and validating control algorithms for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Built on the Gazebo physics engine and integrated with the Robot Operating System (ROS), it enables reliable Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing. [...] Read more.

This paper introduces the ProVANT Simulator, a comprehensive environment for developing and validating control algorithms for Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Built on the Gazebo physics engine and integrated with the Robot Operating System (ROS), it enables reliable Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing. Addressing key challenges such as modeling complex multi-body dynamics, simulating disturbances, and supporting real-time implementation, the framework features a modular architecture, an intuitive graphical interface, and versatile capabilities for modeling, control, and hardware validation. Case studies demonstrate its effectiveness across various UAV configurations, including quadrotors, tilt-rotors, and unmanned aerial manipulators, highlighting its applications in aggressive maneuvers, load transportation, and trajectory tracking under disturbances. Serving both academic research and industrial development, the ProVANT Simulator reduces prototyping costs, development time, and associated risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in UAV Technology: Dynamics, Guidance, Navigation, and Control of Transformative Aerial Vehicles)

59 pages, 4907 KB

Open AccessArticle

On the Structural Design and Additive Construction Process of Martian Habitat Units Using In-Situ Resources on Mars

by Ehsan Dehghani Janabadi, Kasra Amini and Sana Rastegar

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 761; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090761 (registering DOI) - 25 Aug 2025

Abstract

Taking the leap to the secondary and tertiary generations of the missions to Mars, a comprehensive outline was presented for a cluster of Martian Habitat Units (MHUs) designed for long-term settlements of research crew in Melas Chasma, Valles Marineris, Mars. Unlike initial exploration [...] Read more.

Taking the leap to the secondary and tertiary generations of the missions to Mars, a comprehensive outline was presented for a cluster of Martian Habitat Units (MHUs) designed for long-term settlements of research crew in Melas Chasma, Valles Marineris, Mars. Unlike initial exploration missions, where primary survival is ensured through basic engineering solutions, this concept targets later-stage missions focused on long-term human presence. Accordingly, the MHUs are designed not only for functionality but also to support the social and cultural well-being of scientific personnel, resulting in larger and more complex structures than those typically proposed for early-stage landings. To address the construction and structural integrity of the MHUs, the current work presents a comprehensive analysis of the feasibility of semi-3D-printed structural systems using in situ material to minimize the cost and engineering effort of logistics and construction of the units. Regolith-based additive manufacturing was utilized as the primary material, and the response of the structure, not only to the gravitational loads but also to those applied from the exterior flow field and wind pressure distributions, was simulated, as well as the considerations regarding the contribution of the extreme interior/exterior pressure differences. The full analyses and structural results are presented and discussed in this manuscript, as well as insights on manufacturing and its feasibility on Mars. The analyses demonstrate the feasibility of constructing the complex architectural requirements of the MHUs and their cost-effectiveness through the use of in situ resources. The manuscript presents an iterative structural optimization process, with results detailed at each step. Structural elements were modeled using FEM-based analysis in Karamba-3D to minimize near-yielding effects such as buckling and excessive displacements. The final structural system was integrated with the architectural design to preserve the intended spatial and functional qualities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Space System Design)

20 pages, 13826 KB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Trajectory Prediction for Rocket-Powered Vehicle Based on Domain Knowledge and Deep Neural Networks

by Bingsan Yang, Tao Wang, Bin Li, Qianqian Zhan and Fei Wang

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 760; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090760 (registering DOI) - 25 Aug 2025

Abstract

The large-scale trajectory simulation serves as a fundamental basis for the mission planning of a rocket-powered vehicle swarm. However, the traditional flight trajectory calculation method for a rocket-powered vehicle, which employs strict dynamic and kinematic models, often struggles to meet the temporal requirements [...] Read more.

The large-scale trajectory simulation serves as a fundamental basis for the mission planning of a rocket-powered vehicle swarm. However, the traditional flight trajectory calculation method for a rocket-powered vehicle, which employs strict dynamic and kinematic models, often struggles to meet the temporal requirements of mission planning. To address the challenges of timely computation and intelligent optimization, a segmented training strategy, derived from the domain knowledge of the multi-stage flight characteristics of a rocket-powered vehicle, is integrated into the deep neural network (DNN) method. A high-precision trajectory prediction model that fuses multi-DNN is proposed, which can rapidly generate high-precision trajectory data without depending on accurate dynamic models. Based on the determination of the characteristic parameters derived from rocket-powered trajectory theory, a homemade dataset is constructed through a traditional computation method and utilized to train the DNN model. Extensive and varying numerical simulations are given to substantiate the predictive accuracy, adaptability, and stability of the proposed DNN-based method, and the corresponding comparative tests further demonstrate the effectiveness of the segmented strategy. Additionally, the real-time computational capability is also confirmed by computing the simulation of generating full trajectory data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamics, Guidance and Control of Aerospace Vehicles)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 4904 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Combustion Performance of Hypergolic Ionic Liquid Fuels Through Injector Design

by Vikas Khandu Bhosale, Keonwoong Lee, Vincent Mario Pierre Ugolini and Hosung Yoon

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 759; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090759 - 25 Aug 2025

Abstract

Hypergolic ionic liquid fuels are promising alternatives to the toxic hydrazine-based propellants. The present study investigates the combustion performance of a fuel composed of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium thiocyanate ([EMIM][SCN]) and copper(I) thiocyanate (CuSCN) with 95 wt% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in a [...] Read more.

Hypergolic ionic liquid fuels are promising alternatives to the toxic hydrazine-based propellants. The present study investigates the combustion performance of a fuel composed of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium thiocyanate ([EMIM][SCN]) and copper(I) thiocyanate (CuSCN) with 95 wt% hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in a 50 N thruster. Two injectors, DM1 (low pressure drop) and DM2 (high pressure drop), were tested at chamber pressures of 10 and 15 bar. The DM1 injector at 15 bar chamber pressure showed high combustion efficiency but suffered from strong pressure oscillations (>10% instability). Switching to the DM2 injector reduced instability (<5%) by increasing the pressure drop. Combustion stability was also improved as the fuel injector orifice diameter/fuel jet velocity (D/V) decreased. FFT analysis showed an instability frequency of 253 Hz with DM1/15 bar, which was higher than the DM1/10 bar test results. In conclusion, the test results revealed the injector or chamber design and pressure drop are the key factors in improving combustion stability for hypergolic propulsion systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Propellants for In-Space Propulsion)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

24 pages, 7258 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Validation of a Rule-Based Energy Management Strategy for Low-Altitude Hybrid Power Aircraft

by Yunfeng She, Kunkun Fu, Bo Diao and Maosheng Sun

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090758 - 24 Aug 2025

Abstract

In the electrification of low-altitude aircraft, aviation hybrid power systems have become one of the core research areas in this field due to their significant advantages of low emissions and long endurance. The energy management strategy is an important part of the design [...] Read more.

In the electrification of low-altitude aircraft, aviation hybrid power systems have become one of the core research areas in this field due to their significant advantages of low emissions and long endurance. The energy management strategy is an important part of the design of aviation hybrid power systems and has a significant impact on the performance and safety.This paper first develops a 200 kW dual DC-bus series hybrid power system prototype for low-altitude aircraft and its Simulink simulation model; then, it proposes a rule-based energy management strategy that uses the smoothness of the state of charge (SOC) of energy storage batteries as a coordination criterion. The strategy is validated via ground tests, where the battery SOC remains above 30%, the system response time is within 5 s, and the DC-bus voltage fluctuation is within 1%. These results demonstrate the strategy’s feasibility, providing a reference for designing and implementing series hybrid power systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

23 pages, 3135 KB

Open AccessArticle

Delay-Doppler-Based Joint mmWave Beamforming and UAV Selection in Multi-UAV-Assisted Vehicular Communications

by Ehab Mahmoud Mohamed, Mohammad Ahmed Alnakhli and Sherief Hashima

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090757 - 24 Aug 2025

Abstract

Vehicular communication is crucial for the future of intelligent transportation systems. However, providing continuous high-data-rate connectivity for vehicles in hard-to-reach areas, such as highways, rural regions, and disaster zones, is challenging, as deploying ground base stations (BSs) is either infeasible or too costly. [...] Read more.

Vehicular communication is crucial for the future of intelligent transportation systems. However, providing continuous high-data-rate connectivity for vehicles in hard-to-reach areas, such as highways, rural regions, and disaster zones, is challenging, as deploying ground base stations (BSs) is either infeasible or too costly. In this paper, multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) using millimeter-wave (mmWave) bands are proposed to deliver high-data-rate and secure communication links to vehicles. This is due to UAVs’ ability to fly, hover, and maneuver, and to mmWave properties of high data rate and security, enabled by beamforming capabilities. In this scenario, the vehicle should autonomously select the optimal UAV to maximize its achievable data rate and ensure long coverage periods so as to reduce the frequency of UAV handovers, while considering the UAVs’ battery lives. However, predicting UAVs’ coverage periods and optimizing mmWave beam directions are challenging, since no prior information is available about UAVs’ positions, speeds, or altitudes. To overcome this, out-of-band communication using orthogonal time-frequency space (OTFS) modulation is employed to enable the vehicle to estimate UAVs’ speeds and positions by assessing channel state information (CSI) in the Delay-Doppler (DD) domain. This information is used to predict maximum coverage periods and optimize mmWave beamforming, allowing for the best UAV selection. Compared to other benchmarks, the proposed scheme shows significant performance in various scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Enabled Signal Processing for Space–Air–Ground Integrated Networks)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

16 pages, 11229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aerial Vehicle Detection Using Ground-Based LiDAR

by John Kirschler and Jay Wilhelm

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090756 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 92

Abstract

Ground-based LiDAR sensing offers a promising approach for delivering short-range landing feedback to aerial vehicles operating near vertiports and in GNSS-degraded environments. This work introduces a detection system capable of classifying aerial vehicles and estimating their 3D positions with sub-meter accuracy. Using a [...] Read more.

Ground-based LiDAR sensing offers a promising approach for delivering short-range landing feedback to aerial vehicles operating near vertiports and in GNSS-degraded environments. This work introduces a detection system capable of classifying aerial vehicles and estimating their 3D positions with sub-meter accuracy. Using a simulated Gazebo environment, multiple LiDAR sensors and five vehicle classes, ranging from hobbyist drones to air taxis, were modeled to evaluate detection performance. RGB-encoded point clouds were processed using a modified YOLOv6 neural network with Slicing-Aided Hyper Inference (SAHI) to preserve high-resolution object features. Classification accuracy and position error were analyzed using mean Average Precision (mAP) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) across varied sensor parameters, vehicle sizes, and distances. Within 40 m, the system consistently achieved over 95% classification accuracy and average position errors below 0.5 m. Results support the viability of high-density LiDAR as a complementary method for precision landing guidance in advanced air mobility applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

20 pages, 2656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage Robust Optimization for Collaborative Flight Slot in Airport Group Under Capacity Uncertainty

by Jie Ren, Lingyi Jiang, Shiru Qu, Lili Wang and Zixuan Ma

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090755 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 163

Abstract

Airport congestion in metropolitan clusters (Metroplex systems) poses significant challenges, particularly when capacity reductions occur due to adverse weather conditions. This study introduces a two-stage robust optimization model aimed at improving the robustness of flight slot allocation in multi-airport systems under such uncertainties. [...] Read more.

Airport congestion in metropolitan clusters (Metroplex systems) poses significant challenges, particularly when capacity reductions occur due to adverse weather conditions. This study introduces a two-stage robust optimization model aimed at improving the robustness of flight slot allocation in multi-airport systems under such uncertainties. In the first stage, the model minimizes deviations from requested slots while respecting airport and waypoint capacities, turnaround times, and adjustment limits. The second stage dynamically adjusts slot allocations to minimize worst-case displacement costs under potential capacity constraints, ensuring robustness against disruptions. The model is validated using real data from the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Metroplex, which includes 468 peak-hour flights. The results demonstrate the model’s effectiveness in eliminating demand–capacity violations, particularly at critical airports such as Beijing Daxing, where initial peak demand exceeded capacity by 36.2%. Post-optimization, the model ensures dynamic capacity adherence and adaptive resource allocation, with varying adjustment intensities across airports (12.7% at Beijing Capital, 28.4% at Daxing, and 39.0% at Tianjin Binhai). Compared to a single-stage robust optimization approach, the two-stage model reduces worst-case displacement by 28.2%, highlighting its superior adaptability. This computationally efficient framework, solved via Gurobi 12.0.2/Python 3.11.9, enhances operational robustness through integrated waypoint modeling and a two-stage decision architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 32367 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Flight Dynamics of a Hand-Launched Foldable Micro Air Vehicle

by Connor Elliott, Vishnu Saj, Hunter Denton and Moble Benedict

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090754 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 155

Abstract

This paper discusses the development, flight-testing, and flight dynamics modeling of a Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) that could be deployed in a folded configuration via hand launching. This 112 g MAV features foldable propeller arms that can lock into a compact rectangular profile [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the development, flight-testing, and flight dynamics modeling of a Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) that could be deployed in a folded configuration via hand launching. This 112 g MAV features foldable propeller arms that can lock into a compact rectangular profile comparable to the size of a smartphone. The vehicle can be launched by simply throwing it in the air, at which point the arms would unfold and autonomously stabilize to a hovering state. Multiple flight tests demonstrated the capability of the feedback controller to stabilize the MAV from different initial conditions including tumbling rates of up to 2500 deg/s. A six-degree-of-freedom flight dynamics model was developed and validated using flight test data obtained from a motion capture system for various hand-launched scenarios. The current MAV, with its compact design, extreme portability, and rapid/robust deployment capability, could be ideal for emergency scenarios, where a standard launch procedure is unfeasible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

31 pages, 5147 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Hot Air Anti-Icing Characteristics for Intake Components of Aeronautical Engine

by Shuliang Jing, Yaping Hu and Weijian Chen

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090753 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 64

Abstract

A three-dimensional numerical simulation of hot air anti-icing was conducted on the full-annular realistic model of engine intake components, comprising the intake ducts, intake casing, struts, axial flow casing, and zero-stage guide vanes, based on the intermittent maximum icing conditions and the actual [...] Read more.

A three-dimensional numerical simulation of hot air anti-icing was conducted on the full-annular realistic model of engine intake components, comprising the intake ducts, intake casing, struts, axial flow casing, and zero-stage guide vanes, based on the intermittent maximum icing conditions and the actual engine operating parameters. The simulation integrated multi-physics modules, including air-supercooled water droplet two-phase flow around components, water film flow and heat transfer on anti-icing surfaces, solid heat conduction within structural components, hot air flow dynamics in anti-icing cavities, and their coupled heat transfer interactions. Simulation results indicate that water droplet impingement primarily localizes at the leading edge roots and pressure surfaces of struts, as well as the leading edges and pressure surfaces of guide vanes. The peak water droplet collection coefficient reaches 4.2 at the guide vane leading edge. Except for the outlet end wall of the axial flow casing, all anti-icing surfaces of intake components maintain temperatures above the freezing point, demonstrating effective anti-icing performance. The anti-icing characteristics of the intake components are governed by two critical factors: cumulative heat loss along the hot air flow path and heat load consumption for heating and evaporating impinging water droplets. The former induces a 53.9 °C temperature disparity between the first and last struts in the heating sequence. For zero-stage guide vanes, the latter factor exerts a more pronounced influence. Notable temperature reductions occur on the trailing edges of three struts downstream of the hot air flow and at the roots of zero-stage guide vanes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume IV))

► Show Figures

Graphical abstract

26 pages, 2693 KB

Open AccessArticle

Deep-Reinforcement-Learning-Enhanced Kriging Modeling Method with Limit State Dominant Sampling for Aeroengine Structural Reliability Analysis

by Jiongran Wen, Yipin Sun, Aifang Chao, Baiyang Zheng, Jian Li and Haozhe Feng

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090752 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 160

Abstract

Reliability analysis of aeroengine structures is a critical task in aerospace engineering, but traditional methods often face challenges of low computational efficiency and insufficient accuracy when dealing with complex, high-dimensional, and nonlinear problems. This paper proposes a novel reliability assessment method (AC-Kriging) based [...] Read more.

Reliability analysis of aeroengine structures is a critical task in aerospace engineering, but traditional methods often face challenges of low computational efficiency and insufficient accuracy when dealing with complex, high-dimensional, and nonlinear problems. This paper proposes a novel reliability assessment method (AC-Kriging) based on the Actor–Critic network and Kriging surrogate models to address these issues. The Actor network optimizes the sampling strategy for design variables, making sampling more efficient. The Critic network assesses the reliability of these samples to ensure accurate results, while a Kriging surrogate model replaces expensive finite element simulations and cuts computational cost. Three case studies demonstrate that AC-Kriging significantly outperforms traditional methods in both sampling efficiency and reliability estimation accuracy. This research provides an efficient and reliable solution for reliability analysis of aeroengine structures, with important theoretical and engineering application value. Three case studies demonstrate that AC-Kriging significantly outperforms traditional methods in both sampling efficiency and reliability-estimation accuracy, requiring only 52–147 samples to achieve comparable accuracy while maintaining the relative failure probability error within 0.87–7.27%. This research provides an efficient and reliable solution for the reliability analysis of aeroengine structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State Monitoring and Health Management of Complex Equipment (3rd Edition))

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 995 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Survey on Personalized Conflict Resolution Approaches in Air Traffic Control

by Justus Renkhoff, Sarah Ternus and Yash Guleria

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090751 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 154

Abstract

The global shortage of air traffic controllers (ATCOs) has led to significant challenges. One of them is the high workload of ATCOs, often resulting in flight delays. This makes it essential to develop solutions that reduce ATCOs’ workload in order to increase capacity. [...] Read more.

The global shortage of air traffic controllers (ATCOs) has led to significant challenges. One of them is the high workload of ATCOs, often resulting in flight delays. This makes it essential to develop solutions that reduce ATCOs’ workload in order to increase capacity. One promising approach is the integration of decision-support systems. A typical task for which these systems are used for is the resolution of aircraft conflicts in the upper airspaces. A key challenge in implementing these support systems is to ensure a high acceptance and adoption rate of the proposed advisories. One potential solution to this problem is to personalize the advisories, aligning them with individual ATCOs’ preferences and conflict resolution strategies. As this approach offers many promising research directions, this literature review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of existing research in this domain and highlight potential opportunities and open challenges. Overall, 16 papers are discussed in detail to examine the diversity of conflict resolution strategies among ATCOs, the impact of personalization on the acceptance rate of advisories, the technical feasibility of implementing personalization, and the balance between personalized advisories and operational efficiency. Additionally, this paper highlights the opportunities such personalization presents, along with the unresolved challenges that should be addressed in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 3947 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Arbitrary Order Virtual Element Method for Free Torsional Vibrations of Beams

by Marco Lo Cascio and Alberto Milazzo

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 750; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090750 - 22 Aug 2025

Viewed by 153

Abstract

In this study, a novel arbitrary order Virtual Element Method (p-VEM) for free torsional vibration analysis of beams with negligible warping is presented. This method can serve as an equivalent beam model for slender aerospace structural components. The proposed formulation utilizes [...] Read more.

In this study, a novel arbitrary order Virtual Element Method (p-VEM) for free torsional vibration analysis of beams with negligible warping is presented. This method can serve as an equivalent beam model for slender aerospace structural components. The proposed formulation utilizes a spatial discretization of the primary variable with implicit virtual functions that are approximated with polynomials of arbitrary order p by employing a suitably defined projection operator and degrees of freedom. From the spatial discretization of the weak form of the equations of motion, the semi-discrete equations of motion are obtained, from which stiffness and mass matrices are derived without the need for additional stabilization. The developed formulation is validated through several case studies, which demonstrate that the p-VEM offers higher accuracy and faster convergence rate compared to traditional modeling approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Aerospace, Volume 12, Issue 9 (September 2025) – 13 articles

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI