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Building Credible VTOL Flight Models for Certification by Simulation
Fuel Distribution and Thermopropulsion Systems Sizing for LH2 Powered Aircraft Using a MBSE Approach
Inter-Laboratory Characterisation of a Low Power Channel-Less Hall-Effect Thruster: Performance Comparisons and Lessons Learnt
Emission Reduction Potential of Hydrogen-Powered Aviation Between Airports in Proximity of Seaports
Design and Flight Dynamics of a Hand-Launched Foldable Micro Air Vehicle

Journal Description

Aerospace

Aerospace is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics published monthly online by MDPI. The European Aerospace Science Network (EASN), and the ECATS International Association are affiliated with Aerospace and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (Aerospace Engineering)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 20.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journal: Astronomy.
Journal Cluster of Mechanical Manufacturing and Automation Control: Aerospace, Automation, Drones, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, Machines, Robotics and Technologies.

Impact Factor: 2.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-4310

Latest Articles

23 pages, 37303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design Optimization of a Pseudo-Rigid-Compliant Mechanism for Large, Continuous, and Smooth Morphing of Airfoil Camber

by Victor Alulema, Victor Hidalgo, Edgar Cando and Esteban Valencia

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 825; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090825 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

This work introduces a novel variable camber mechanism that combines the high-load capacity, structural stability, and mechanical efficiency of rigid-body mechanisms with the adaptability, lightweight design, and continuous and smooth motion of compliant mechanisms. The proposed mechanism, featuring an articulated airfoil structure with [...] Read more.

This work introduces a novel variable camber mechanism that combines the high-load capacity, structural stability, and mechanical efficiency of rigid-body mechanisms with the adaptability, lightweight design, and continuous and smooth motion of compliant mechanisms. The proposed mechanism, featuring an articulated airfoil structure with revolute joints and a cantilever beam that models and controls airfoil camber morphing, employs both standard and higher kinematic pairs to constrain mobility and facilitate camber adjustments through beam deflection and coordinated kinematic interactions. Through multidisciplinary optimization, this study determined the optimal mechanism configuration and airfoil shapes for a small fixed-wing UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle), meeting its morphing and mission requirements, showing the potential for drag reduction by up to 13% across various cruise conditions, thus lowering overall mission drag and energy usage. 2D (airfoil) and 3D (wing) prototypes were built to demonstrate the working principle of the proposed mechanism and to highlight its morphing capabilities. It can morph into multiple airfoil configurations, producing continuous, smooth and efficient airfoil shapes. Moreover, the mechanism is robust, simple, and easy to manufacture, effectively harnessing the strengths of both rigid-body and compliant mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in UAV Technology: Dynamics, Guidance, Navigation, and Control of Transformative Aerial Vehicles)

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24 pages, 10285 KB

Open AccessArticle

Angle of Attack Effects on Boundary Layer Transition over a Flared Cone–Swept Fin Configuration

by Qingdong Meng, Juanmian Lei, Song Wu, Chaokai Yuan, Jiang Yu and Ling Zhou

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 824; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090824 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

In our previous study, the transition behavior of a flared cone–swept fin configuration was investigated under an angle of attack (AoA) of 0°. To further explore the role of AoA in complex three-dimensional geometries with strong fin–body interactions, wind tunnel experiments [...] Read more.

In our previous study, the transition behavior of a flared cone–swept fin configuration was investigated under an angle of attack (AoA) of 0°. To further explore the role of AoA in complex three-dimensional geometries with strong fin–body interactions, wind tunnel experiments were conducted at Ma = 9.3, Re = 1.36 × 10⁷/m, with AoA ranging from −6° to 6°. Global surface temperature distributions were obtained using temperature-sensitive paint (TSP), while localized heat flux and pressure fluctuations were captured using thin-film thermocouples and high-frequency pressure sensors. The results show that varying AoA shifts the location of high heat flux between the upper and lower surfaces of the flared cone and induces a switch from streamwise to separation vortices. The windward side exhibits stronger disturbance responses than the leeward side. The junction region between the flared cone and the near-horizontal surface is highly sensitive to AoA variations, consistently exhibiting pronounced second-mode instabilities. These findings provide experimental support for understanding transition mechanisms under the combined effects of shock/boundary layer interaction (SBLI), crossflow, and adverse pressure gradients, with implications for transition prediction and thermal protection system design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hypersonic Boundary-Layer Instability and Transition upon Complex Geometries)

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24 pages, 3055 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analysis of the Thermal Environment of Rail-Based Hot Launch Systems

by Yichen Wang, Yifei Su, Zhongyi Sun, Shifan Wu, Huaqing Wu and Guigao Le

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 823; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090823 (registering DOI) - 12 Sep 2025

This paper investigates the surface thermal environment of a rail-based launch system subjected to missile plume impingement flow during hot launch. This study established a computational model for missile plume impingement on a rail-based launch system based on the three-dimensional Navier–Stokes equations and [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the surface thermal environment of a rail-based launch system subjected to missile plume impingement flow during hot launch. This study established a computational model for missile plume impingement on a rail-based launch system based on the three-dimensional Navier–Stokes equations and the realizable k − ε turbulence model. CFD simulations were performed for the flow field impacting the launch system with varying deflector heights under different missile flight altitudes. The results demonstrate that when the missile flight altitude H is within 20 m, the launch system experiences a severe thermal environment, the maximum gas temperature on the deflector surface can reach as high as 3200 K, the maximum gas temperature on the surface of the carriage bottom will also exceed 2600 K. Higher deflector heights improve the thermal conditions for facilities beneath the launch vehicle, such as the rail track components and sleepers, it can reduce the maximum surface temperature of the carriage bottom by up to 22.3%, but simultaneously deteriorate the thermal environment on the upper surface of the launch vehicle and the deflector itself. Furthermore, the position where the barrel shock of the engine plume impinges on the deflector alters the gas temperature distribution pattern on the deflector surface. This demonstrates that even a slight variation in the engine’s position relative to the deflector can induce dramatic changes in the gas temperature distribution morphology across the deflector surface. Research demonstrates that during rail-based launch system operations, employing deflectors with optimized heights can significantly improve the thermal environment across critical components. For deflectors of a given height, the current engineering practice of using discrete computational conditions (e.g., H = 0 m, 2 m, and 10 m) requires finer parametric refinement. This is essential to resolve the phenomenon where minor variations in engine-deflector standoff distance induce significant morphological changes in surface gas temperature distribution, thereby enabling further optimization of the launch system’s thermal protection design. The “thermal environment” in this paper only provides the surface gas temperature as a reference. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

30 pages, 41226 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and In-Flight Performance of the Power Converter Module and the Pressurised Enclosure for a Scientific Payload Onboard a Stratospheric Balloon

by José Luis Gasent-Blesa, Esteban Sanchis-Kilders, Agustín Ferreres, David Gilabert, Julián Blanco Rodríguez and Juan B. Ejea

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 822; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090822 - 12 Sep 2025

This paper addresses the technical requirements and challenges encountered in the design and development of a customised power electronics board for a stratospheric balloon payload. This board includes power conversion and distribution to critical components (e.g., FPGAs and a ±4 kV power supply), [...] Read more.

This paper addresses the technical requirements and challenges encountered in the design and development of a customised power electronics board for a stratospheric balloon payload. This board includes power conversion and distribution to critical components (e.g., FPGAs and a ±4 kV power supply), as well as the pressurised enclosure designed to house these components along with other essential electronics. These systems were part of two scientific instruments onboard SUNRISE III, a high-altitude solar observatory launched in July 2024 from ESRANGE (Kiruna, Sweden), with a floating trajectory over the Arctic Circle. The SUNRISE III mission, based on a stratospheric balloon, was carried out by an international consortium of research institutions from Germany, Spain, Japan, and the United States, and in collaboration with NASA’s CSBF and the Swedish Space Corporation. Furthermore, this work presents telemetry data from the pressure sensing system of the electronic unit, as well as voltage and current measurements from the power electronics board outputs. These data were recorded during the floating phase of the mission, up to the balloon’s arrival in northern Canada after a successful week of scientific operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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31 pages, 7404 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Stage Coordinated Azimuth Control for High-Precision Balloon-Borne Astronomical Platforms

by Yulang Cui, Jianghua Zhou, Yijian Li, Wanning Huang and Yongqi Liu

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090821 - 11 Sep 2025

This study investigates multi-level coupled dynamic issues in near-space balloon-borne astronomical observation platforms subjected to multi-source disturbances, proposing an integrated azimuth pointing control scheme combining unified modeling with composite control strategies. A nonlinear dynamic model is established to characterize inertial coupling effects between [...] Read more.

This study investigates multi-level coupled dynamic issues in near-space balloon-borne astronomical observation platforms subjected to multi-source disturbances, proposing an integrated azimuth pointing control scheme combining unified modeling with composite control strategies. A nonlinear dynamic model is established to characterize inertial coupling effects between the gondola system and secondary gimbal platform. The velocity-loop feedback mechanism utilizing fiber-optic gyroscopes achieves base disturbance decoupling, while an adaptive fuzzy PID controller enhances position-loop disturbance rejection capabilities. A gain adaptation strategy coordinates hierarchical control dynamics, complemented by anti-windup constraints safeguarding actuator operational boundaries. Simulation verifications confirm the exceptional high-precision pointing capability and robust stability under representative wind disturbances and sensor noise conditions. The system maintains a superior control performance across parameter perturbation scenarios, demonstrating consistent operational reliability. This study provides an innovative technical paradigm for precision observation missions in near space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Characterization and Operations of Lighter-than-Air Flying Vehicles)

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18 pages, 3270 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Combustor Material for Micro-Propulsion Systems

by David M. Dias, Pedro R. Resende and Alexandre M. Afonso

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090820 - 11 Sep 2025

The increasing demand on combustion-based micro-power generation systems, mainly due to the high energy density of hydrocarbon fuels, created a great opportunity to develop portable power devices, which can be applied on micro unmanned aerial vehicles, micro-satellite thrusters, or micro chemical reactors and [...] Read more.

The increasing demand on combustion-based micro-power generation systems, mainly due to the high energy density of hydrocarbon fuels, created a great opportunity to develop portable power devices, which can be applied on micro unmanned aerial vehicles, micro-satellite thrusters, or micro chemical reactors and sensors. Also, the need for better and cheaper communications networks and control systems has led space companies to invest in micro and meso satellites, such as CubeSat. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive and meticulous study of micro-combustion within wavy channel micro-propulsion systems, which can be applied on micro unmanned aerial vehicles or CubeSat. The primary objective was to gain a deeper comprehension of the dynamics within these complex non-linear geometries and analyze the effect of different materials on the combustion dynamics and propulsion efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Theoretical, Numerical and Experimental Studies on Clean Energy and Combustion, 2nd Edition)

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46 pages, 8516 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Advancements in Inspection, Manufacturing and Repair, and Robots for On-Orbit Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (OSAM) of Spacecraft

by Kayla Dremann, Motaz Hassan, Isabelle Davis, Ashton Vicente Orosa, Natasha Ninan, Ajay Mahajan, Xiaosheng Gao and Siamak Farhad

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 819; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090819 - 11 Sep 2025

Since the first successful on-orbit repair mission in 1984 to the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite, considerable progress has been made in the field of On-orbit Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (OSAM) of spacecraft using either human-guided or autonomous robots. This article aims to [...] Read more.

Since the first successful on-orbit repair mission in 1984 to the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite, considerable progress has been made in the field of On-orbit Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (OSAM) of spacecraft using either human-guided or autonomous robots. This article aims to provide a review of state-of-the-art efforts in this field and the necessary technologies to achieve the ultimate objective of autonomous spacecraft repairs while in orbit. The article covers the literature relevant to OSAM, including a brief overview of OSAM, inspection technologies, manufacturing and repair technologies, state-of-the-art robotic technologies capable of performing the required tasks, and intelligent path planning of robots. The article also highlights the research’s location, timeframe, and public versus private sector efforts, and outlines future directions in this field. This article aims to foster a community of researchers and public-private partnerships working towards the common objective of autonomous robotic inspection and repair of on-orbit spacecraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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20 pages, 3507 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aerodynamic Design Optimization for Flying Wing Gliders Based on the Combination of Artificial Neural Networks and Genetic Algorithms

by Dinh Thang Tran, Van Khiem Pham, Anh Tuan Nguyen and Duy-Trong Nguyen

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090818 - 10 Sep 2025

Gliders are engineless aircraft capable of maintaining altitude for extended periods and achieving long ranges. This paper presents an optimal aerodynamic design method for flying wing gliders, leveraging a combination of artificial neural networks (ANNs) as a surrogate model and genetic algorithms (GAs) [...] Read more.

Gliders are engineless aircraft capable of maintaining altitude for extended periods and achieving long ranges. This paper presents an optimal aerodynamic design method for flying wing gliders, leveraging a combination of artificial neural networks (ANNs) as a surrogate model and genetic algorithms (GAs) for optimization. Data for training the ANN is generated using the vortex-lattice method (VLM). The study identifies optimal aerodynamic shapes for two objectives: maximum flight endurance and maximum range. A key finding is the inherent conflict between aerodynamic performance and static stability in tailless designs. By introducing a stability constraint via a penalty function, we successfully generate stable and high-performance configurations. For instance, the stabilized RG15 airfoil design achieves a maximum glide ratio of 24.1 with a robust 5.1% static margin. This represents a calculated 11.5% performance reduction compared to its unstable theoretical optimum, quantitatively demonstrating the crucial trade-off between stability and performance. The methodology provides a computationally efficient path to designing practical, high-performance, and inherently stable flying wing gliders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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16 pages, 2410 KB

Open AccessArticle

Constitutive Model Based on Stress Relaxation for Composite Modified Double-Base Propellants and Master Curve of Relaxation Modulus

by Yao Li, Jinsheng Xu, Changsheng Zhou, Xiong Chen and Xiumin Yang

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090817 - 10 Sep 2025

This study investigates the constitutive model and relaxation modulus master curve of composite modified double-base (CMDB) propellants through uniaxial constant-rate tensile tests and stress relaxation tests. The experimental observations demonstrate that CMDB propellants exhibit pronounced strain-rate dependence and temperature dependence. Specifically, the yield [...] Read more.

This study investigates the constitutive model and relaxation modulus master curve of composite modified double-base (CMDB) propellants through uniaxial constant-rate tensile tests and stress relaxation tests. The experimental observations demonstrate that CMDB propellants exhibit pronounced strain-rate dependence and temperature dependence. Specifically, the yield stress and fracture strength of the propellant increase with increasing strain rate and decrease with increasing temperature. Conversely, the fracture strain increases with increasing temperature. The stress–strain curves of CMDB propellants display marked nonlinearity, attributed to progressive damage accumulation. The relaxation modulus increases significantly with decreasing temperature. Utilizing the time-temperature superposition principle, we constructed a master curve model for the relaxation modulus of CMDB propellants across varying temperatures. Furthermore, based on the observed stress relaxation behavior, a nonlinear constitutive model for CMDB propellants was developed. Theoretical predictions derived from this model show good agreement with experimental data. This model effectively captures the characteristic stress softening and damage evolution in CMDB propellants, thereby providing a theoretical foundation for assessing its mechanical performance and predicting its service life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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32 pages, 7175 KB

Open AccessArticle

Learning Aircraft Spin Dynamics from Measurement Data Using Hankel DMDc with Error in Variables

by Balakumaran Swaminathan and Joel George Manathara

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 816; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090816 - 10 Sep 2025

Aircraft spin, a nonlinear phenomenon dominated by unsteady aerodynamics, is difficult to predict. This article proposes a novel approach using Hankel Dynamic Mode Decomposition with Control (HDMDc) to identify an aircraft plant model for spin motion directly from measurement data. A key challenge [...] Read more.

Aircraft spin, a nonlinear phenomenon dominated by unsteady aerodynamics, is difficult to predict. This article proposes a novel approach using Hankel Dynamic Mode Decomposition with Control (HDMDc) to identify an aircraft plant model for spin motion directly from measurement data. A key challenge in real-world data-driven modeling is addressing noise in both input and output measurements, often termed errors in variables (EIV). The standard HDMDc does not account for the distinct noise characteristics of different sensors. To overcome this, modifications are proposed to the standard HDMDc algorithm using EIV approaches: total least squares and bias-eliminating least squares. The proposed algorithms are validated first with a simple nonlinear dynamical system exhibiting limit cycle oscillation. Further, the methodology is applied to the simulated steady spin of the T-2 aircraft and the oscillatory spin motion of the F-18 aircraft. It is demonstrated that models identified using HDMDc with the EIV approach predicted spin trajectories with high goodness-of-fit values, even for unseen control inputs and initial conditions that differed from the training data. Specifically, the predicted trajectories had a FIT% close to 90% in most cases, with the worst-case FIT% being 38%. In contrast, the standard HDMDc algorithm’s predicted trajectory was not even visually close to the actual system trajectory, highlighting the significant improvement of the modified approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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23 pages, 2424 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impacts of Climate Change on Aircraft Noise near European Airports

by Jonny Williams, Paul D. Williams, Marco Venturini, Anil Padhra, Guy Gratton and Spyridon Rapsomanikis

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 815; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090815 - 10 Sep 2025

The warmer air resulting from climate change reduces the lift force on a departing aircraft, potentially reducing its climb angle and causing more engine noise near the airport. Here, we study this phenomenon at a selection of 30 European airports in northern hemisphere [...] Read more.

The warmer air resulting from climate change reduces the lift force on a departing aircraft, potentially reducing its climb angle and causing more engine noise near the airport. Here, we study this phenomenon at a selection of 30 European airports in northern hemisphere summer (June–July–August). We first formulate and verify a low-complexity model of noise propagation around airports, although we emphasise that our high-level results do not explicitly depend on this agreement. The model includes anisotropic noise propagation, atmospheric absorption, and the ability to model the noise emissions from multiple engines. We study the Airbus A320, but the method could be straightforwardly generalised to other aircraft. We refer to the model as an emulator since (using Latin hypercube parameter sampling) it mimics a more comprehensive model against which it is verified. The model is used to calculate the area enclosed by the 50 dB SPL (sound pressure level) contour,

A_{50}

, which agrees well with a similar metric (using the day–evening–night sound level,

L_{den}

) from the verification target,

A

. Using temperature and pressure data from IPCC simulations of future climate, and using a straightforward relation between climb angle and air density, we assess how climate change could affect climb angles by mid-century (2035–2064). The value of

A_{50}

is obtained by efficiently covarying (1) the engine noise at 10 m from the engines and (2) the climb angle under ‘historical’ conditions (1985–2014). The median values (across 10 climate models) of climb angle reduction in the future warmer climate are around 1–3% (depending on the airport and climate model used), but individual days can show values as high as 7.5% for the most extreme warming scenarios. By considering the variation in the absorption coefficient of the air with frequency, we find that the number of people affected by noise pollution could increase by up to 4%—as much as 2500 people for the most highly populated areas—by mid-century and that these changes are maximised for the most damaging and psychologically ‘annoying’ (low) frequencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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22 pages, 5146 KB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Control Performance of Tilt-Rotor VTOL UAV with Model-Based Reward and Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning

by Muammer Ugur and Aydin Yesildirek

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090814 - 9 Sep 2025

Tilt-rotor Vertical Takeoff and Landing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (TR-VTOL UAVs) combine fixed-wing and rotary-wing configurations, offering optimized flight planning but presenting challenges due to their complex dynamics and uncertainties. This study investigates a multi-agent reinforcement learning (RL) control system utilizing Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) [...] Read more.

Tilt-rotor Vertical Takeoff and Landing Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (TR-VTOL UAVs) combine fixed-wing and rotary-wing configurations, offering optimized flight planning but presenting challenges due to their complex dynamics and uncertainties. This study investigates a multi-agent reinforcement learning (RL) control system utilizing Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) modules, which are designed to independently control each input with a tailored reward mechanism. By implementing a novel reward structure based on a dynamic reference response region, the multi-agent design improves learning efficiency by minimizing data redundancy. Compared to other control methods such as Actor-Critic Neural Networks (AC NN), Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO), Nonsingular Terminal Sliding Mode Control (NTSMC), and PID controllers, the proposed system shows at least a 30% improvement in transient performance metrics—including RMSE, rise time, settling time, and maximum overshoot—under both no wind and constant 20 m/s wind conditions, representing an extreme scenario to evaluate controller robustness. This approach has also reduced training time by 80% compared to single-agent systems, lowering energy consumption and environmental impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in UAVs: Design Methods, Performance Enhancement Techniques and Technologies)

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24 pages, 4545 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Test Data Management in Spacecraft Ground Testing: A Practical Approach for Centralized Storage and Automated Processing

by Jooho Park, Young-Joo Song and Donghun Lee

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 813; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090813 - 9 Sep 2025

In recent years, spacecraft have been developed to support higher data-rate communication systems and accommodate a wider range of payloads. These advancements have led to the generation of large volumes of data and increased system complexity. In particular, during the ground-testing phase, the [...] Read more.

In recent years, spacecraft have been developed to support higher data-rate communication systems and accommodate a wider range of payloads. These advancements have led to the generation of large volumes of data and increased system complexity. In particular, during the ground-testing phase, the need for an effective test data management strategy has become increasingly important to improve test efficiency and reduce costs, as sorting, distributing, and analyzing extensive test data is both time consuming and resource intensive. To address these challenges, this study introduces a practical and implementation-oriented autonomous system for centralized test data handling, which has been successfully applied and verified during actual spacecraft development and ground testing operations. The system enables the rapid transfer of test data to centralized storage without waiting for test completion or requiring human intervention by utilizing an event-triggered architecture. In addition, it automatically provides the transferred test data in multiple formats tailored to each engineering team, facilitating effective data comparison and analysis. It also performs automated test data validation without manual input. The performance of the enhanced test data management was evaluated through big-data analysis of logs generated during automated test data transfer and post-processing in actual spacecraft ground tests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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32 pages, 10218 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of the Collision Characteristics of Colloidal Particles in Fuel Servo Valves

by Jin Zhang, Ranheng Du, Jie Ni, Wenlong Yin, Geng Cao, Ying Li and Huan Wang

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 812; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090812 - 8 Sep 2025

The fuel electro-hydraulic servo valve is a core component of the aero-engine fuel control system, playing a crucial role in engine performance. Due to the operational characteristics of the aviation fuel supply and injection system, fuel is directly sprayed through the nozzle for [...] Read more.

The fuel electro-hydraulic servo valve is a core component of the aero-engine fuel control system, playing a crucial role in engine performance. Due to the operational characteristics of the aviation fuel supply and injection system, fuel is directly sprayed through the nozzle for combustion after passing through the pipeline. The working environment and medium are subject to a wide temperature range, and the medium lacks a circulating filtration process, making it difficult to effectively remove impurities. As a result, the fuel contains a high concentration of contaminant particles. Under high-temperature conditions, colloidal particles precipitated from the fuel medium collide and adhere to metallic and other contaminant particles carried by the fuel, subsequently attaching to the internal surfaces of the fuel servo valve, causing valve sticking. This study aims to establish an adhesion criterion suitable for colloidal particles in fuel systems based on a traditional particle collision model. The adhesion criterion incorporates the viscoelastic and surface energy characteristics of colloidal particles, providing a more accurate description of their deposition behavior under the conditions studied. A particle–particle and particle–wall collision test apparatus was designed, and experiments were conducted. A comparison between experimental results and theoretical calculations shows that the overall error for collisions between colloidal particles and walls is controlled within 10%, validating the feasibility of the adhesion criterion. The Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and surface free energy of the colloidal particles were measured as 688 MPa, 0.39, and 77 mJ/m², respectively. These results provide theoretical and experimental foundations for particle migration and deposition processes in fuel systems. The analytical method clarifies the key mechanism of adhesion caused by colloidal particles, providing guidance for improving the reliability, safety, and maintenance of fuel servo valves in aero-engine applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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30 pages, 9157 KB

Open AccessArticle

ST-GTNet: A Spatio-Temporal Graph Attention Network for Dynamic Airport Capacity Prediction

by Pinzheng Qian, Jian Zhang, Haiyan Zhang, Xunhao Li and Jie Ouyang

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 811; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090811 - 8 Sep 2025

Dynamic evaluation of airport terminal capacity is critical for efficient operations, yet it remains challenging due to the complex interplay of spatial and temporal factors. Existing approaches often handle spatial connectivity and temporal fluctuations separately, limiting their predictive power under rapidly changing conditions. [...] Read more.

Dynamic evaluation of airport terminal capacity is critical for efficient operations, yet it remains challenging due to the complex interplay of spatial and temporal factors. Existing approaches often handle spatial connectivity and temporal fluctuations separately, limiting their predictive power under rapidly changing conditions. Here the ST-GTNet (Spatio-Temporal Graph Transformer Network) is presented, a novel deep learning model that integrates Graph Convolutional Networks (GCNs) with a Transformer architecture to simultaneously capture spatial interdependencies among airport gates and temporal patterns in operational data. To ensure interpretability and efficiency, a feature selection mechanism guided by XGBoost and SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations) is incorporated to identify the most influential features. This unified spatio-temporal framework overcomes the limitations of conventional methods by learning spatial and temporal dynamics jointly, thereby enhancing the accuracy of dynamic capacity predictions. In a case study at a large international airport with a U-shaped corridor terminal, the ST-GTNet delivered robust and reliable capacity forecasts, validating its effectiveness in a complex real-world scenario. These findings highlight the potential of the ST-GTNet as a powerful tool for dynamic airport capacity evaluation and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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22 pages, 1725 KB

Open AccessArticle

Stochastic Model Predictive Control for Parafoil System via Markov-Based Multi-Scenario Optimization

by Qi Feng, Qingbin Zhang, Zhiwei Feng, Jianquan Ge, Qingquan Chen, Linhong Li and Yujiao Huang

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090810 - 8 Sep 2025

As an essential technology for precision airdrop missions, parafoil systems have gained widespread adoption in military and civilian applications due to their superior glide performance and maneuverability compared to conventional parachutes. Addressing the trajectory-tracking control challenges of the parafoil system under significant wind [...] Read more.

As an essential technology for precision airdrop missions, parafoil systems have gained widespread adoption in military and civilian applications due to their superior glide performance and maneuverability compared to conventional parachutes. Addressing the trajectory-tracking control challenges of the parafoil system under significant wind disturbances, characterized by wind uncertainty and system underactuation, this paper proposes a stochastic model predictive control (SMPC) framework based on Markov-based multi-scenario optimization. Traditional deterministic model predictive control (MPC) methods often exhibit excessive conservatism due to reliance on worst-case assumptions and fail to capture the time-varying nature of real-world wind fields. To address these limitations, a high-fidelity dynamic model is developed to accurately characterize aerodynamic coupling effects, overcoming the oversimplifications of conventional three-degree-of-freedom point-mass models. Leveraging Markov state transitions, multiple wind-disturbance scenarios are dynamically generated, effectively overcoming the limitations of independent and identically distributed hypotheses in modeling realistic wind variations. A probabilistic constraint-reconstruction strategy combined with a rolling time-domain covariance update mechanism mitigates uncertainties and enables cooperative optimization of inner-loop attitude stabilization and outer-loop trajectory tracking. The simulation results demonstrate that the SMPC framework achieves superior comprehensive performance compared to deterministic MPC, evidenced by significant reductions in maximum position error, average position error, and control effort variation rate, along with a 94% tracking success rate. By balancing robustness, tracking precision, and computational efficiency, the method provides a theoretical foundation and a promising simulation-validated solution for airdrop missions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Landing Systems Engineering)

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29 pages, 5672 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Attack–Defense Non-Cooperative Game Model from the Perspective of Safety and Security Synergistically for Aircraft Avionics Systems

by He Sui, Yinuo Zhang, Zhaojun Gu and Monowar Bhuyan

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 809; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090809 - 8 Sep 2025

The interconnectivity of avionics systems supports the need to incorporate functional safety and information security into airworthiness validation and maintenance protocols, which is critical. This necessity arises from the demanding operational environments and the limitations on defense resource allocation. This study proposes an [...] Read more.

The interconnectivity of avionics systems supports the need to incorporate functional safety and information security into airworthiness validation and maintenance protocols, which is critical. This necessity arises from the demanding operational environments and the limitations on defense resource allocation. This study proposes an optimization model for the strategic deployment of defense mechanisms, leveraging the dynamic interplay between attack and defense modeled by non-cooperative game theory and aligning with the maintenance schedules of civil aircraft. By developing an Attack–Defense Tree and conducting a non-cooperative game analysis, this paper outlines strategies from both the attacker’s and defender’s perspectives, assessing the impact of focused defense improvements on the system’s security integrity. The results reveal that the broad expansion of defense measures reduces their effectiveness, whereas targeted deployment significantly enhances protection. Monte Carlo simulations are employed to approximate equilibrium solutions across the strategy space, reducing computational complexity while retaining robustness in capturing equilibrium trends. This approach supports efficient allocation of defense resources, strengthens overall system security, and provides a practical foundation for integrating security analysis into avionics maintenance and certification processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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31 pages, 6396 KB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Stall Margin Evaluation of Axial Slot Casing Treatment in a Transonic Multistage Compressor

by Pedro Seiti Endo, Jesuino Takachi Tomita, Cleverson Bringhenti, Franco Jefferds dos Santos Silva and Ruben Bruno Diaz

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090808 - 8 Sep 2025

Adverse pressure gradients are intrinsic to compressor flow behavior and are further intensified by secondary effects associated with rotor tip clearance flow interactions. Tip clearance generates leakage flow, which leads to the formation of tip leakage vortices, a major contributor to aerodynamic losses [...] Read more.

Adverse pressure gradients are intrinsic to compressor flow behavior and are further intensified by secondary effects associated with rotor tip clearance flow interactions. Tip clearance generates leakage flow, which leads to the formation of tip leakage vortices, a major contributor to aerodynamic losses in axial compressors. These vortices significantly influence both compressor performance and operational stability. Extensive prior research has demonstrated that passive casing treatments, particularly axial slots, can substantially improve the stall margin in axial compressors. In this work, the performance of a new casing treatment geometry is investigated using the concept of recirculating flow within semi-circular axial slots. The proposed casing treatment geometry builds upon recent experimental findings involving single-rotor configurations. It was applied to the first rotor row of a three-and-a-half-stage (3.5-stage) axial compressor comprising an inlet guide vane followed by three rotor–stator stages. The numerical model incorporates axial slots with a novel periodic interface approach implemented in a multistage compressor simulation. Three-dimensional steady-state RANS (Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes) simulations were performed to investigate the aerodynamic effects of the casing treatment across various rotational speeds. The results for the casing treatment configuration were compared with those of a baseline smooth casing. The introduction of the new casing treatment produced noticeable modifications to the internal flow structure, particularly in the tip region, resulting in improved overall compressor stability within the operating range of 85 to 100% of design speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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24 pages, 13649 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Influence of Cracked Control Surface on the Gust Response of High-Aspect-Ratio Flying Wing

by Mingdong Wang, Xiangmian He, Yuguang Bai and Sheng Zhang

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 807; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090807 - 8 Sep 2025

Flying-wing aircraft based on high-aspect-ratio wings are a popular configuration for many aerospace engineering applications. Cracked (or cross) control surface structures can adjust the aerodynamic characteristics of flying-wing aircraft. Deep investigations into the effects of such a control surface can provide a helpful [...] Read more.

Flying-wing aircraft based on high-aspect-ratio wings are a popular configuration for many aerospace engineering applications. Cracked (or cross) control surface structures can adjust the aerodynamic characteristics of flying-wing aircraft. Deep investigations into the effects of such a control surface can provide a helpful design foundation. This paper investigates the mass distribution influences of cracked control surfaces on gust responses of high-aspect-ratio flying wings. Validated finite element modelling, revised by detailed ground vibration test (GVT) with a frequency error of less than 10%, reveals that root boundary conditions significantly affect the natural modes and frequencies of present wings with cracked control surfaces. Changes in control surface (CS) mass have a critical impact on gust response: a 150 g increase in CS mass results in a 15–22% increase in peak response acceleration and a 25–30% increase in response duration, while redistributing mass to the outboard CS reduces the peak response by 18–26% while keeping the total mass consistent. The results can provide an effective suppression strategy for the gust responses of flying-wing configurations without redesigning the main structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal Fluid, Dynamics and Control)

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15 pages, 2594 KB

Open AccessOpinion

On Space Debris Removal by Lasers: Can Spatially and Temporally Shaped Laser Pulses Be Advantageous for Propulsion?

by Nadezhda M. Bulgakova

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090806 - 8 Sep 2025

For exploration of space, in particular in attempts to find new extra-terrestrial resources, human society has encountered the problem of space pollution with human-made debris, which represents high risks for space missions. This prompted extensive activities for cleaning the space using various techniques, [...] Read more.

For exploration of space, in particular in attempts to find new extra-terrestrial resources, human society has encountered the problem of space pollution with human-made debris, which represents high risks for space missions. This prompted extensive activities for cleaning the space using various techniques, which are briefly overviewed here. But the main focus of this paper is on using lasers for space debris removal. The attention is drawn to laser beam shaping techniques, which are discussed as potential technologies for deorbiting space debris, providing more energetically favorable laser propulsion compared to conventional laser beams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Propulsion Science and Technology (2nd Edition))

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