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Building Credible VTOL Flight Models for Certification by Simulation
Fuel Distribution and Thermopropulsion Systems Sizing for LH2 Powered Aircraft Using a MBSE Approach
Inter-Laboratory Characterisation of a Low Power Channel-Less Hall-Effect Thruster: Performance Comparisons and Lessons Learnt
Emission Reduction Potential of Hydrogen-Powered Aviation Between Airports in Proximity of Seaports
Design and Flight Dynamics of a Hand-Launched Foldable Micro Air Vehicle

Journal Description

Aerospace

Aerospace is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics published monthly online by MDPI. The European Aerospace Science Network (EASN), and the ECATS International Association are affiliated with Aerospace and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (Aerospace Engineering)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 20.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journal: Astronomy.
Journal Cluster of Mechanical Manufacturing and Automation Control: Aerospace, Automation, Drones, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, Machines, Robotics and Technologies.

Impact Factor: 2.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-4310

Latest Articles

27 pages, 27375 KB

Open AccessArticle

ComputationalAnalysis of a Towed Jumper During Static Line Airborne Operations: A Parametric Study Using Various Airdrop Configurations

by Usbaldo Fraire, Jr., Mehdi Ghoreyshi, Adam Jirasek, Keith Bergeron and Jürgen Seidel

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 897; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100897 - 3 Oct 2025

This study uses the CREATE^TM-AV/Kestrel simulation software to model a towed jumper scenario using standard aircraft settings to quantify paratrooper stability and risk of contact during static line airborne operations. The focus areas of this study include a review of the [...] Read more.

This study uses the CREATE^TM-AV/Kestrel simulation software to model a towed jumper scenario using standard aircraft settings to quantify paratrooper stability and risk of contact during static line airborne operations. The focus areas of this study include a review of the technical build-up, which includes aircraft, paratrooper and static line modeling, plus preliminary functional checkouts executed to verify simulation performance. This research and simulation development effort is driven by the need to meet the analysis demands required to support the US Army Personnel Airdrop with static line length studies and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Joint Airdrop Capability Syndicate (JACS) with airdrop interoperability assessments. Each project requires the use of various aircraft types, static line lengths and exit procedures. To help meet this need and establish a baseline proof of concept (POC) simulation, simulation setups were developed for a towed jumper from both the C-130J and C-17 using a 20-ft static line to support US Army Personnel Airdrop efforts. Concurrently, the JACS is requesting analysis to support interoperability testing to help qualify the T-11 parachute from an Airbus A400M Atlas aircraft, operated by NATO nations. Due to the lack of an available A400M geometry, the C-17 was used to demonstrate the POC, and plans to substitute the geometry are in order when it becomes available. The results of a nominal Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation run using a C-17 and C-130J will be reviewed with a sample of the output to help characterize performance differences for the aircraft settings selected. The US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center (DEVCOM-SC) Aerial Delivery Division (ADD) has partnered with the US Air Force Academy (USAFA) High Performance Computing Research Center (HPCRC) to enable Modeling and Simulation (M&S) capabilities that support the Warfighter and NATO airdrop interoperability efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancing Fluid Dynamics in Aerospace Applications)

24 pages, 2810 KB

Open AccessArticle

Traffic Simulation of Automated-Driving Ground Support Equipment at Tokyo International Airport

by Yuka Kuroda, Shinya Hanaoka, Satoshi Sato and Ryota Horiguchi

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 896; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100896 - 3 Oct 2025

In Japan, the shortage of airport ground-handling personnel has become a serious concern with the growing demand for aviation, necessitating improvements in operational efficiency. Accordingly, the expectations for automating aircraft ground support equipment (GSE) vehicles are growing to achieve labor savings. This study [...] Read more.

In Japan, the shortage of airport ground-handling personnel has become a serious concern with the growing demand for aviation, necessitating improvements in operational efficiency. Accordingly, the expectations for automating aircraft ground support equipment (GSE) vehicles are growing to achieve labor savings. This study evaluated the changes in GSE traffic flow performance (travel speed, travel time, and number of stops) through traffic simulations under various scenarios of automated-driving GSEs penetrating the entire airport restricted areas. We simulated the traffic flow at Tokyo International Airport using the observation data of each GSE driving through the airport. Simulation results indicated that GSEs experience a reduced travel speed in some vehicle corridors when automated-driving GSEs, considering the safety risks associated with existing automated technology, run at lower speeds to ensure reliable driving performance. Consequently, the total travel time of the GSEs for the entire airport increases. These results confirm that the penetration of automated-driving GSEs can be facilitated by implementing measures, such as developing technology for reliable driving performance or operational rules at intersections to enable these vehicles to run at a speed equivalent to that of manned GSEs and to prevent speed reduction and travel time increase in airport vehicle corridors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Air Transportation—Operations and Management)

45 pages, 5989 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Hybrid-Electric Propulsion in Aviation: Modeling Methods, Energy Management Strategies, and Future Prospects

by Feifan Yu, Jiajie Chen, Panao Gao, Yu Kong, Xiaokang Sun, Jiqiang Wang and Xinmin Chen

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100895 - 3 Oct 2025

Aviation is under increasing pressure to reduce carbon emissions in conventional transports and support the growth of low-altitude operations such as long-endurance eVTOLs. Hybrid-electric propulsion addresses these challenges by integrating the high specific energy of fuels or hydrogen with the controllability and efficiency [...] Read more.

Aviation is under increasing pressure to reduce carbon emissions in conventional transports and support the growth of low-altitude operations such as long-endurance eVTOLs. Hybrid-electric propulsion addresses these challenges by integrating the high specific energy of fuels or hydrogen with the controllability and efficiency of electrified powertrains. At present, the field of hybrid-electric aircraft is developing rapidly. To systematically study hybrid-electric propulsion control in aviation, this review focuses on practical aspects of system development, including propulsion architectures, system- and component-level modeling approaches, and energy management strategies. Key technologies in the future are examined, with emphasis on aircraft power-demand prediction, multi-timescale control, and thermal integrated energy management. This review aims to serve as a reference for configuration design, modeling and control simulation, as well as energy management strategy design of hybrid-electric propulsion systems. Building on this reference role, the review presents a coherent guidance scheme from architectures through modeling to energy-management control, with a practical roadmap toward flight-ready deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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20 pages, 3033 KB

Open AccessReview

Particle-Laden Two-Phase Boundary Layer: A Review

by Aleksey Yu. Varaksin and Sergei V. Ryzhkov

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100894 - 2 Oct 2025

The presence of solid particles (or droplets) in a flow leads to a significant increase in heat fluxes, the occurrence of chemical reactions, and erosive surface wear of various aircraft moving in the dusty (or rainy) atmosphere of Earth or Mars. A review [...] Read more.

The presence of solid particles (or droplets) in a flow leads to a significant increase in heat fluxes, the occurrence of chemical reactions, and erosive surface wear of various aircraft moving in the dusty (or rainy) atmosphere of Earth or Mars. A review of computational, theoretical, and experimental work devoted to the study of the characteristics of the boundary layers (BL) of gas with solid particles was performed. The features of particle motion in laminar and turbulent boundary layers, as well as their inverse effect on gas flow, are considered. Available studies on the stability of the laminar boundary layer and the effect of particles on the laminar–turbulent transition are analyzed. At the end of the review, conclusions are drawn, and priorities for future research are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Flow Mechanics (4th Edition))

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19 pages, 658 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Fast Midcourse Trajectory Optimization Method for Interceptors Based on the Bézier Curve

by Jingqi Li, Gang Zhang and Liang Cui

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100893 - 2 Oct 2025

This paper proposes a fast midcourse trajectory optimization method by using the Bézier curve as a transcription scheme to represent the interceptor trajectories. First, the trajectory optimization problem is established with the constraints during midcourse guidance and the performance index of the terminal [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a fast midcourse trajectory optimization method by using the Bézier curve as a transcription scheme to represent the interceptor trajectories. First, the trajectory optimization problem is established with the constraints during midcourse guidance and the performance index of the terminal velocity. Then, the interceptor position coordinates are represented using Bézier functions, which directly satisfy the boundary constraints. Other state and control variables are also expressed as Bézier functions. Finally, the original trajectory optimization problem is transformed into optimizing the Bézier parameters, which can be obtained by sequential quadratic programming. Numerical examples verify the rapidity of the proposed method when compared with various traditional numerical optimization methods. In addition, the result of the proposed method can be used as a fast solution satisfying all the boundary and path constraints, and it can also be used as an initial guess for further optimizations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spacecraft Trajectory Design)

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26 pages, 10389 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Aeroelastic Characteristics of a Large-Span Joined-Wing Solar-Powered UAV

by Xinyu Tong, Xiaoping Zhu, Zhou Zhou, Junlei Sun, Jian Zhang and Qiang Wang

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100892 - 2 Oct 2025

When a joined-wing configuration is applied to the design of solar-powered UAVs, the increasing span amplifies aeroelastic effects, while structure complexity poses greater challenges to computational effectiveness during the conceptual design phase. This paper focuses on a large-span joined-wing solar-powered UAV (LJS-UAV) engineering [...] Read more.

When a joined-wing configuration is applied to the design of solar-powered UAVs, the increasing span amplifies aeroelastic effects, while structure complexity poses greater challenges to computational effectiveness during the conceptual design phase. This paper focuses on a large-span joined-wing solar-powered UAV (LJS-UAV) engineering prototype. The structural finite element model of the whole system is constructed by developing the ‘Simplified beam-shell model’ (SBSM) and verified by a structural mode test. A numerical simulation approach is employed to comprehensively analyse and summarise the aeroelastic characteristics of the LJS-UAV from the perspectives of static aeroelasticity, flutter, and gust response. The mode test identified 30 global modes with natural frequencies below 10 Hz, indicating that the LJS-UAV possesses an exceptionally flexible structure and exhibits highly complex aeroelastic characteristics. The simulation results reveal that the structural elasticity induces significant variations in aerodynamic forces, moments, and derivatives during flight, which cannot be neglected. The longitudinal trim strategies can considerably influence the aeroelastic boundary of the LJS-UAV. Utilising the front-wing control surfaces for trim is beneficial in improving structural performance and expanding the flight envelope. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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19 pages, 6856 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ignition and Combustion Characteristics of Aluminum Hydride-Based Kerosene Propellant

by Jiangong Zhao, Chenzhuo Hao, Yilun Liu, Yihao Fu and Wen Ao

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 891; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100891 - 1 Oct 2025

Aluminum hydride (AlH₃) is a promising candidate for enhancing the combustion performance of liquid fuels due to its high energy density and exceptional hydrogen storage capacity. This study investigated the ignition and combustion characteristics of μ-AlH₃ particles in kerosene droplets [...] Read more.

Aluminum hydride (AlH₃) is a promising candidate for enhancing the combustion performance of liquid fuels due to its high energy density and exceptional hydrogen storage capacity. This study investigated the ignition and combustion characteristics of μ-AlH₃ particles in kerosene droplets using TG-DSC analysis, high-speed imaging, laser ignition, and combustion product characterization, with comparisons to micron- and nano-aluminum powders. Results showed that the exothermic combustion of hydrogen released from AlH₃ decomposition lowered the primary oxidation temperature of aluminum, leading to more intense combustion with smaller ejected particles. The particle size of kerosene droplets containing AlH₃ rapidly decreases due to the escape of hydrogen. The heat released by the combustion of hydrogen significantly accelerates the combustion of droplets, and the fastest combustion rate is observed at a concentration of 1% AlH₃. The combustion products of kerosene droplets containing AlH₃ are smaller than those of kerosene droplets containing aluminum, indicating that their combustion efficiency is higher. A combustion model for AlH₃-based kerosene droplets was developed, demonstrating less than 10% error in predicting ignition delay and burning rates. These findings provide valuable insights for the application of AlH₃ in liquid fuels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion of Solid Propellants)

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26 pages, 2204 KB

Open AccessArticle

Angular Motion Stability of Large Fineness Ratio Wrap-Around-Fin Rotating Rockets

by Zheng Yong, Juanmian Lei and Jintao Yin

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100890 - 30 Sep 2025

Long-range rotating wrap-around-fin rockets may exhibit non-convergent conical motion at high Mach numbers, causing increased drag, reduced range, and potential flight instability. This study employs the implicit dual time-stepping method to solve the unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) equations for simulating the flow field [...] Read more.

Long-range rotating wrap-around-fin rockets may exhibit non-convergent conical motion at high Mach numbers, causing increased drag, reduced range, and potential flight instability. This study employs the implicit dual time-stepping method to solve the unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) equations for simulating the flow field around a high aspect ratio wrap-around-fin rotating rocket at supersonic speeds. Validation of the numerical method in predicting aerodynamic characteristics at small angles of attack is achieved by comparing numerically obtained side force and yawing moment coefficients with experimental data. Analyzing the rocket’s angular motion process, along with angular motion equations, reveals the necessary conditions for the yawing moment to ensure stability during angular motion. Shape optimization is performed based on aerodynamic coefficient features and flow field structures at various angles of attack and Mach numbers, using the yawing moment stability condition as a guideline. Adjustments to parameters such as tail fin curvature radius, tail fin aspect ratio, and body aspect ratio diminish the impact of asymmetric flow induced by the wrap-around fin on the lateral moment, effectively resolving issues associated with near misses and off-target impacts resulting from dynamic instability at high Mach numbers. Full article

21 pages, 4707 KB

Open AccessArticle

Layout Optimization of Hybrid Pseudolite Systems Based on an Incremental GDOP Model

by Zhaoyi Guo, Baoguo Li and Yifan Wu

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100889 - 30 Sep 2025

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) are widely used in many applications but can be out of use in some critical conditions. Hybrid pseudolite systems utilize ground and aero stations as pseudolites to provide positioning signals for users within the covered area. The positioning [...] Read more.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) are widely used in many applications but can be out of use in some critical conditions. Hybrid pseudolite systems utilize ground and aero stations as pseudolites to provide positioning signals for users within the covered area. The positioning accuracy is an important performance parameter for the pseudolite system and is decided by the layout of the pseudolites. This paper proposes a layout optimization method based on an Incremental Geometric Dilution of Precision (IGDOP) model. The IGDOP considers the GDOP value into two parts. One is the fixed part corresponding to the ground stations, and the other is the varying part related to the movable aero pseudolite stations. Thus, when the aero pseudolites’ position changes, the new GDOP value could be obtained only by calculating the varying part. Then, a Monte-Carlo Genetic Algorithm (MC-GA) is proposed for the IGDOP calculation for a minimum value. This algorithm comprises two main components: first, it leverages the random sampling capability of the Monte-Carlo Algorithm to provide sample points that satisfy the sample space for the subsequent Genetic Algorithm, which serve as individuals of the initial population; subsequently, it searches for the minimum value of IGDOP via the Genetic Algorithm and determines the optimized layout of the hybrid pseudolite system. Simulations are carried out using a hybrid pseudolite system with four fixed stations and n movable stations. The results validate the developed IGDOP model and show that the approach enables scalable optimization of n − 1 movable stations via four fixed stations, providing an efficient, low-complexity solution to the system layout optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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18 pages, 1524 KB

Open AccessArticle

Defying Lunar Dust: A Revolutionary Helmet Design to Safeguard Astronauts’ Health in Long-Term Lunar Habitats

by Christopher Salvino, Kenneth Altshuler, Paul Beatty, Drew DeJarnette, Jesse Ybanez, Hazel Obana, Edwin Osabel, Andrew Dummer, Eric Lutz and Moe Momayez

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 888; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100888 - 30 Sep 2025

Lunar dust remains one of the most critical unresolved challenges to long-duration lunar missions. Its sharp, abrasive, and electrostatically charged particles are easily inhaled and can penetrate deep into the lungs, reaching the bloodstream and the brain. Despite airlocks and HEPA filtration systems, [...] Read more.

Lunar dust remains one of the most critical unresolved challenges to long-duration lunar missions. Its sharp, abrasive, and electrostatically charged particles are easily inhaled and can penetrate deep into the lungs, reaching the bloodstream and the brain. Despite airlocks and HEPA filtration systems, dust will inevitably infiltrate lunar habitats and threaten astronaut health. We present a novel patent protected helmet design. This system uses a multilayered, synergistic mitigation approach combining mechanical and electrostatic defenses. The mechanical system delivers HEPA-filtered, ionized air across the user’s face, while the electrostatic barrier repels charged particles away from the respiratory zone. These two systems work together to prevent dust from entering the user’s breathing space. Designed for use inside lunar habitats, this helmet represents a potential solution to an unaddressed, life-threatening problem. It allows astronauts to eat, talk, and sleep while maintaining a protected respiratory zone and provides targeted inhalation-level protection in an environment where dust exposure is otherwise unavoidable. This concept is presented at Technology Readiness Level 2 (TRL 2) to prompt early engagement and feedback from the scientific and engineering communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

25 pages, 1253 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Validation of a Working Fluid Versatile Supersonic Turbine for Micro Launchers

by Cleopatra Florentina Cuciumita, Valeriu Alexandru Vilag, Cosmin Petru Suciu and Emilia Georgiana Prisăcariu

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 887; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100887 - 30 Sep 2025

The growing demand for micro-launchers capable of placing payloads between 1 and 100 kg into low Earth orbit stems from rapid advances in electronics and the resulting increase in nanosatellite capabilities. Simultaneously, space programs are prioritizing the use of alternative propellants, those that [...] Read more.

The growing demand for micro-launchers capable of placing payloads between 1 and 100 kg into low Earth orbit stems from rapid advances in electronics and the resulting increase in nanosatellite capabilities. Simultaneously, space programs are prioritizing the use of alternative propellants, those that are more sustainable, cost-effective, and readily available. As a result, modern launcher development emphasizes versatility, reliability, reusability, and adaptability to various working fluids. This paper presents the experimental validation of a supersonic turbine design methodology tailored for such adaptable systems. The focus is on a turbine class intended for a turbopump in micro-launchers with payload capacities around 100 kg. The experimental campaign employed two working fluids (air and methane) to assess the method’s robustness. The validation was performed on a stator only planar model, and the experimental data was compared with the analytical result obtained through the Mach number similarity criterion. The results confirm that the approach accurately identifies flow similarity through Mach number matching, even when the working fluid changes. Comparative analysis between experimental data and predictions demonstrates the method’s reliability, with measurement uncertainties also addressed. These findings support the methodology’s applicability in practical engine design and adaptation. Future work will explore enhancements to improve predictive capability and flexibility. The method may be extended to other systems where fluid substitution offers design or operational advantages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

23 pages, 1724 KB

Open AccessArticle

UQ4CFD: An Uncertainty Quantification Platform for CFD Simulation

by Wei Xiao, Jiao Zhao, Luogeng Lv, Jiangtao Chen, Peihong Zhang and Xiaojun Wu

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100886 - 30 Sep 2025

The credibility of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been a topic of debate due to the significant uncertainties inherent in its modeling processes and numerical implementations. Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) offers a scientific framework for quantitatively assessing and mitigating uncertainties in CFD simulations. However, [...] Read more.

The credibility of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has been a topic of debate due to the significant uncertainties inherent in its modeling processes and numerical implementations. Uncertainty Quantification (UQ) offers a scientific framework for quantitatively assessing and mitigating uncertainties in CFD simulations. However, this procedure typically requires numerous CFD simulations and considerable manual effort for both simulation management and data analysis. To overcome these challenges, this work develops a platform called UQ4CFD, a browser–server software that provides automated and customized uncertainty quantification capabilities for CFD studies. The UQ4CFD platform integrates different kinds of methodologies to perform comprehensive uncertainty analysis, including uncertainty propagation, sensitivity analysis, surrogate modeling, numerical discretization uncertainty analysis, model validation, model calibration, etc. A tightly coupled CFD-UQ workflow is built to automate the complete analytical process, encompassing parameter sampling, simulation execution, and results analysis, which significantly improves computational efficiency while reducing risks associated with data processing errors. Comprehensive validation employing both analytical benchmark functions and practical CFD cases has been conducted to demonstrate the platform’s effectiveness and adaptability in diverse UQ scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

27 pages, 20226 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mitigation of Switching Ringing of GaN HEMT Based on RC Snubbers

by Xi Liu, Hui Li, Jinshu Lin, Chen Song, Honglang Zhang, Yuxiang Xue and Hengbin Zhang

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 885; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100885 - 30 Sep 2025

Gallium nitride high electron mobility transistors (GaN HEMTs), characterized by their extremely high switching speeds and superior high-frequency performance, have demonstrated significant advantages, and gained extensive applications in fields such as aerospace and high-power-density power supplies. However, their unique internal architecture renders these [...] Read more.

Gallium nitride high electron mobility transistors (GaN HEMTs), characterized by their extremely high switching speeds and superior high-frequency performance, have demonstrated significant advantages, and gained extensive applications in fields such as aerospace and high-power-density power supplies. However, their unique internal architecture renders these devices highly sensitive to circuit parasitic parameters. Conventional circuit design methodologies often induce severe issues such as overshoot and high-frequency oscillations, which significantly constrain the realization of their high-frequency performance. To solve this problem, this paper investigates the nonlinear dynamic behavior of GaN HEMTs during switching transients by establishing an equivalent impedance model. Based on this model, a detailed analysis is implemented to elucidate the mechanism by which RC Snubber circuits influence the system’s resonance frequency and the amplitude at the resonant frequency. Through this analysis, an optimal RC Snubber circuit parameter is derived, enabling effective suppression of high-frequency oscillations during the switching transient of GaN HEMT. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed design achieves a maximum reduction of 40% in voltage overshoot, shortens the ringing time to one-twentieth of the original value, and suppresses noise by 20 dB in the high-frequency range of 20 MHz to 30 MHz, thereby significantly enhancing the stability and reliability of circuit operation. Additionally, considering the heat dissipation requirements in high power density scenarios, this work optimizes the layout of devices, and heat sinks to maintain operational temperatures within safe limits, further mitigating the impact of parasitic parameters on overall system performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

29 pages, 37875 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hardware-in-the-Loop Testing of Spacecraft Relative Dynamics and Tethered Satellite System on a Tip-Tilt Flat-Table Facility

by Giuseppe Governale, Armando Pastore, Matteo Clavolini, Mattia Li Vigni, Christian Bellinazzi, Catello Leonardo Matonti, Stefano Aliberti, Riccardo Apa and Marcello Romano

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 884; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100884 - 29 Sep 2025

This article presents a compact tip-tilting platform designed for hardware-in-the-loop emulation of spacecraft relative dynamics and a physical setup for testing tethered systems. The architecture consists of a granite slab supported by a universal joint and two linear actuators to control its orientation. [...] Read more.

This article presents a compact tip-tilting platform designed for hardware-in-the-loop emulation of spacecraft relative dynamics and a physical setup for testing tethered systems. The architecture consists of a granite slab supported by a universal joint and two linear actuators to control its orientation. This configuration allows a Floating Spacecraft Simulator to move on the surface in a quasi-frictionless environment under the effect of gravitational acceleration. The architecture includes a dedicated setup to emulate tethered satellite dynamics, providing continuous feedback on the tension along the tether through a mono-axial load cell. By adopting the Buckingham “

π

” theorem, the dynamic similarity is introduced for the ground-based experiment to reproduce the orbital dynamics. Proof-of-concept results demonstrate the testbed’s capability to accurately reproduce the Hill–Clohessy–Wiltshire equations. Moreover, the results of the deployed tethered system dynamics are presented. This paper also details the system architecture of the testbed and the methodologies employed during the experimental campaign. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Satellite Systems Design, Verification and Testing to Spacecraft Operations)

24 pages, 4577 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Electro-Thermal De-Icing on a NACA0012 Airfoil Under Harsh SLD Conditions and Different Angles of Attack

by Sobhan Ghorbani Nohooji and Moussa Tembely

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100883 - 29 Sep 2025

Ice accretion (icing) on aircraft surfaces is a significant safety risk through airfoil shape modification and reduction in aerodynamic efficiency. This process occurs when an aircraft flies through clouds of supercooled water droplets that freeze upon impact on exposed surfaces. To counter this [...] Read more.

Ice accretion (icing) on aircraft surfaces is a significant safety risk through airfoil shape modification and reduction in aerodynamic efficiency. This process occurs when an aircraft flies through clouds of supercooled water droplets that freeze upon impact on exposed surfaces. To counter this hazard, electro-thermal de-icing systems integrate heaters in critical regions to melt ice and reduce performance losses. In this study, a multiphysics computational model is used to simulate ice accretion and electro-thermal de-icing on a NACA-0012 airfoil, accounting for factors such as airflow, droplet impingement, phase changes, and heat conduction. The model’s predictions are validated against experimental data, confirming its accuracy. A cyclic electro-thermal ice protection system (ETIPS) is then tested under both standard and severe supercooled large droplet (SLD) conditions, examining how droplet size and angle of attack affect de-icing performance. Simulations without an active de-icing system show severe aerodynamic degradation, including an 11.1% loss of lift and a 48.2% increase in drag at a

12^{\circ}

angle of attack. For large droplets (median 200

μ

m), the drag coefficient increases by 36.5%. Under harsh icing conditions, the effectiveness of the de-icing system is found to depend on droplet size, angle of attack, and heater placement. Even with continuous heater operation, ice continues to accumulate on the leading edge at higher angles of attack. While the ETIPS performs effectively against large droplets in heated zones, unheated regions experience significant ice buildup (especially with 200

μ

m droplets). This indicates that additional or extended heaters may be necessary to ensure complete protection in extreme conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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22 pages, 12940 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Quasi-One-Dimensional Ejector Model

by Jinfan Chen, Kaifeng He, Jianqiang Zhang and Guoliang Wang

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 882; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100882 - 29 Sep 2025

A new quasi-one-dimensional ejector model for the prediction of ejector performance is carried out, which is based on the theory of ideal gas expansion and free layer development. The model is proposed for calculation of the variable area bypass injector (VABI) and ejector [...] Read more.

A new quasi-one-dimensional ejector model for the prediction of ejector performance is carried out, which is based on the theory of ideal gas expansion and free layer development. The model is proposed for calculation of the variable area bypass injector (VABI) and ejector nozzle in the variable cycle engine (VCE), both at the design point and off-design point. The internal structure of ejector nozzle is determined based on an analysis of the flow field of the 2D ejector nozzle Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) result. The flow during the expansion section is divided into three parts: primary flow, secondary flow, and mixed layer flow. Combined with the growth rate of mixing layer thickness, the calculation methods of ejector nozzle exit parameters under critical working conditions and blocking working conditions are given, and the calculated results demonstrate a strong consistency with CFD results, maintaining relative errors below 3%. This method is used to evaluate the ejector nozzle capacity quickly in the overall design stage, which provides theoretical support for the design of the main bypass system of a variable cycle engine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Speed Aircraft and Engine Design)

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39 pages, 6394 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Fair and Congestion-Aware Flight Authorization Framework for Unmanned Traffic Management

by David Carramiñana, Juan A. Besada and Ana M. Bernardos

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100881 - 29 Sep 2025

With the expected increase in drone operations, inter-operator fairness issues and congestion problems are expected to arise due to the strategic authorization approach mandated in European regulation. As an alternative, the proposed authorization method is based on a deferred authorization decision with multiple-priority [...] Read more.

With the expected increase in drone operations, inter-operator fairness issues and congestion problems are expected to arise due to the strategic authorization approach mandated in European regulation. As an alternative, the proposed authorization method is based on a deferred authorization decision with multiple-priority classes that are gate-kept by a series of scarce flight tokens. In it, operators can guide the aerial traffic deconfliction process by indicating the criticality of each operation (i.e., selected priority class) based on their business logic and the available flight tokens. Scarce token distribution is performed by a centralized service following a fairness- or congestion-management policy defined by authorities. Also, geographical and temporal incentives can be considered using a 4D-dependent temporal airspace cost to compute the required number of tokens per flight. Results based on several simulation scenarios demonstrate the validity of the approach and its capability in prioritizing different operators’ behaviors (fairness management) or avoiding flight hotspots (congestion management). Overall, it is concluded that the proposed method is an efficient, fair, simple and scalable novel authorization process that can be integrated into the U-space ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Applications of Low-Altitude Urban Traffic System)

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27 pages, 10626 KB

Open AccessArticle

Meshless Time–Frequency Stochastic Dynamic Analysis for Sandwich Trapezoidal Plate–Shell Coupled Systems in Supersonic Airflow

by Ningze Sun, Guohua Gao, Dong Shao and Weige Liang

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 880; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100880 - 29 Sep 2025

In this paper, a full-domain stochastic response analysis is performed based on the meshless method to reveal the time–frequency dynamic characteristics, including the power spectral density (PSD) responses in the frequency domain and the evolving PSD distribution in the time domain for a [...] Read more.

In this paper, a full-domain stochastic response analysis is performed based on the meshless method to reveal the time–frequency dynamic characteristics, including the power spectral density (PSD) responses in the frequency domain and the evolving PSD distribution in the time domain for a sandwich trapezoidal plate–shell coupled system. The general governing equations are derived based on the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT), linear piston theory and Hamilton’s principle, and the stochastic excitation is integrated into the meshless framework based on the pseudo-excitation method (PEM). By constructing the meshless shape function covering the entire structural domain from Chebyshev polynomials and discretizing the continuous domain into a series of nodes within a square definition domain, the points are assembled according to the sequence number and the equilibrium relationship on the coupling edge to obtain the overall vibration equations. The validity is demonstrated by matching the mode shapes, PSD responses, time history displacement and critical flutter boundaries with FEM simulation and reported data. Finally, the time–frequency characteristics of each substructure under global and single stochastic excitation, and the effect of aerodynamic pressure on full-domain stochastic vibration, are revealed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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31 pages, 6157 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Green Bipropellant Thrusters and Engines Using 98% Hydrogen Peroxide as Oxidizer

by Adam Okninski, Pawel Surmacz, Kamil Sobczak, Wojciech Florczuk, Dawid Cieslinski, Aleksander Gorgeri, Bartosz Bartkowiak, Dominik Kublik, Michal Ranachowski, Zbigniew Gut, Adrian Parzybut, Anna Kasztankiewicz, Jacek Mazurek, Ferran Valencia Bel, Armin Herbertz, Kate Underhill, Dirk Schneider and Andreas Flock

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 879; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100879 - 29 Sep 2025

The need for non-toxic chemical propulsion systems is growing stronger in today’s space sector. One of the possible solutions for next-generation bipropellant systems is using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidizer. However, there is limited knowledge about using 98% High-Test Peroxide (HTP), which can [...] Read more.

The need for non-toxic chemical propulsion systems is growing stronger in today’s space sector. One of the possible solutions for next-generation bipropellant systems is using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidizer. However, there is limited knowledge about using 98% High-Test Peroxide (HTP), which can enable high mass and volumetric performance. Therefore, this paper presents an overview of the development of green bipropellant technology using 98% HTP. The goal is to cover nearly 15 years of experience with 98% HTP and over 10 years of the use of bipropellants containing 98% HTP. The development approach and methods, including component testing and hot-firing, are described. This paper provides test data for various types of bipropellant thrusters and engines producing between 20 and 7000 N of thrust in vacuum, which is the range typically utilized for in-space propulsion. Fuel ignition processes via utilization of a catalyst bed and via hypergolic ignition are analyzed. Successful demonstrations under different operating requirements (steady state, pulse-mode operations, throttleability, etc.) are discussed. The obtained results show that green bipropellants could compete with traditional storable bipropellant technologies. The challenges and opportunities associated with using HTP bipropellants in complete propulsion systems are listed. This paper concludes with recommendations for further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Propellants for In-Space Propulsion)

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17 pages, 4749 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Analyses of Surge Process in a Small-Scale Turbojet Engine by Three-Dimensional Full-Engine Simulation

by Mengyang Wen, Heli Yang, Xuedong Zheng, Weihan Kong, Zechen Ding, Rusheng Li, Lei Jin, Baotong Wang and Xinqian Zheng

Aerospace 2025, 12(10), 878; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12100878 - 29 Sep 2025

Surge is a typical aerodynamic instability phenomenon in the compressors of aeroengines. The surge can lead to severe performance degradation and even structural damage to the engine and the air vehicle, making it a longstanding critical concern in the industry. Analyzing and understanding [...] Read more.

Surge is a typical aerodynamic instability phenomenon in the compressors of aeroengines. The surge can lead to severe performance degradation and even structural damage to the engine and the air vehicle, making it a longstanding critical concern in the industry. Analyzing and understanding the surge process contributes to enhancing the aerodynamic stability of designed compressors. Previous research in this field often focuses solely on the compressor itself while neglecting the mutual interaction between the compressor and other components in the entire engine system. This study investigates the compressor surge process within an integrated engine environment using a full-engine three-dimensional Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) simulation method for the entire engine system, validated through variable geometry turbine experiments on a small turbojet engine. The result demonstrates that the integrated three-dimensional simulation approach can capture the primary flow characteristics of the compression system during surge within an integrated engine environment. Under the influence of the variable geometry turbine, the studied small turbojet engine enters a state of mild surge. This paper also investigates the changes in aerodynamic forces during surge and reveals the two-regime surge phenomenon that exists during the engine surge. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Numerical Modelling of Aerospace Propulsion)

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