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Preliminary Aircraft Design for Hybrid Electric Propulsion Architectures: A Focus on Critical Loss of Thrust
Cost Effectiveness of Reusable Launch Vehicles Depending on the Payload Capacity
Aerodynamic Shape Optimization of Wing–Fuselage Intersection for Minimum Interference Drag
Space Trajectory Planning with a General Reinforcement-Learning Algorithm
Urban Air Mobility Aircraft Operations in Urban Environments: A Review of Potential Safety Risks

Journal Description

Aerospace

Aerospace is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics published monthly online by MDPI. The European Aerospace Science Network (EASN), and the ECATS International Association are affiliated with Aerospace and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (Aerospace Engineering)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 20.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.5 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Companion journal: Astronomy.
Journal Cluster of Mechanical Manufacturing and Automation Control: Aerospace, Automation, Drones, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, Machines, Robotics and Technologies.

Impact Factor: 2.2 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2226-4310

Latest Articles

16 pages, 11229 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerial Vehicle Detection Using Ground-Based LiDAR

by John Kirschler and Jay Wilhelm

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 756; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090756 - 22 Aug 2025

Ground-based LiDAR sensing offers a promising approach for delivering short-range landing feedback to aerial vehicles operating near vertiports and in GNSS-degraded environments. This work introduces a detection system capable of classifying aerial vehicles and estimating their 3D positions with sub-meter accuracy. Using a [...] Read more.

Ground-based LiDAR sensing offers a promising approach for delivering short-range landing feedback to aerial vehicles operating near vertiports and in GNSS-degraded environments. This work introduces a detection system capable of classifying aerial vehicles and estimating their 3D positions with sub-meter accuracy. Using a simulated Gazebo environment, multiple LiDAR sensors and five vehicle classes, ranging from hobbyist drones to air taxis, were modeled to evaluate detection performance. RGB-encoded point clouds were processed using a modified YOLOv6 neural network with Slicing-Aided Hyper Inference (SAHI) to preserve high-resolution object features. Classification accuracy and position error were analyzed using mean Average Precision (mAP) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) across varied sensor parameters, vehicle sizes, and distances. Within 40 m, the system consistently achieved over 95% classification accuracy and average position errors below 0.5 m. Results support the viability of high-density LiDAR as a complementary method for precision landing guidance in advanced air mobility applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

20 pages, 2656 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two-Stage Robust Optimization for Collaborative Flight Slot in Airport Group Under Capacity Uncertainty

by Jie Ren, Lingyi Jiang, Shiru Qu, Lili Wang and Zixuan Ma

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 755; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090755 - 22 Aug 2025

Airport congestion in metropolitan clusters (Metroplex systems) poses significant challenges, particularly when capacity reductions occur due to adverse weather conditions. This study introduces a two-stage robust optimization model aimed at improving the robustness of flight slot allocation in multi-airport systems under such uncertainties. [...] Read more.

Airport congestion in metropolitan clusters (Metroplex systems) poses significant challenges, particularly when capacity reductions occur due to adverse weather conditions. This study introduces a two-stage robust optimization model aimed at improving the robustness of flight slot allocation in multi-airport systems under such uncertainties. In the first stage, the model minimizes deviations from requested slots while respecting airport and waypoint capacities, turnaround times, and adjustment limits. The second stage dynamically adjusts slot allocations to minimize worst-case displacement costs under potential capacity constraints, ensuring robustness against disruptions. The model is validated using real data from the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Metroplex, which includes 468 peak-hour flights. The results demonstrate the model’s effectiveness in eliminating demand–capacity violations, particularly at critical airports such as Beijing Daxing, where initial peak demand exceeded capacity by 36.2%. Post-optimization, the model ensures dynamic capacity adherence and adaptive resource allocation, with varying adjustment intensities across airports (12.7% at Beijing Capital, 28.4% at Daxing, and 39.0% at Tianjin Binhai). Compared to a single-stage robust optimization approach, the two-stage model reduces worst-case displacement by 28.2%, highlighting its superior adaptability. This computationally efficient framework, solved via Gurobi 12.0.2/Python 3.11.9, enhances operational robustness through integrated waypoint modeling and a two-stage decision architecture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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29 pages, 32367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Flight Dynamics of a Hand-Launched Foldable Micro Air Vehicle

by Connor Elliott, Vishnu Saj, Hunter Denton and Moble Benedict

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090754 - 22 Aug 2025

This paper discusses the development, flight-testing, and flight dynamics modeling of a Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) that could be deployed in a folded configuration via hand launching. This 112 g MAV features foldable propeller arms that can lock into a compact rectangular profile [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the development, flight-testing, and flight dynamics modeling of a Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) that could be deployed in a folded configuration via hand launching. This 112 g MAV features foldable propeller arms that can lock into a compact rectangular profile comparable to the size of a smartphone. The vehicle can be launched by simply throwing it in the air, at which point the arms would unfold and autonomously stabilize to a hovering state. Multiple flight tests demonstrated the capability of the feedback controller to stabilize the MAV from different initial conditions including tumbling rates of up to 2500 deg/s. A six-degree-of-freedom flight dynamics model was developed and validated using flight test data obtained from a motion capture system for various hand-launched scenarios. The current MAV, with its compact design, extreme portability, and rapid/robust deployment capability, could be ideal for emergency scenarios, where a standard launch procedure is unfeasible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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31 pages, 5147 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Simulation of Hot Air Anti-Icing Characteristics for Intake Components of Aeronautical Engine

by Shuliang Jing, Yaping Hu and Weijian Chen

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090753 - 22 Aug 2025

A three-dimensional numerical simulation of hot air anti-icing was conducted on the full-annular realistic model of engine intake components, comprising the intake ducts, intake casing, struts, axial flow casing, and zero-stage guide vanes, based on the intermittent maximum icing conditions and the actual [...] Read more.

A three-dimensional numerical simulation of hot air anti-icing was conducted on the full-annular realistic model of engine intake components, comprising the intake ducts, intake casing, struts, axial flow casing, and zero-stage guide vanes, based on the intermittent maximum icing conditions and the actual engine operating parameters. The simulation integrated multi-physics modules, including air-supercooled water droplet two-phase flow around components, water film flow and heat transfer on anti-icing surfaces, solid heat conduction within structural components, hot air flow dynamics in anti-icing cavities, and their coupled heat transfer interactions. Simulation results indicate that water droplet impingement primarily localizes at the leading edge roots and pressure surfaces of struts, as well as the leading edges and pressure surfaces of guide vanes. The peak water droplet collection coefficient reaches 4.2 at the guide vane leading edge. Except for the outlet end wall of the axial flow casing, all anti-icing surfaces of intake components maintain temperatures above the freezing point, demonstrating effective anti-icing performance. The anti-icing characteristics of the intake components are governed by two critical factors: cumulative heat loss along the hot air flow path and heat load consumption for heating and evaporating impinging water droplets. The former induces a 53.9 °C temperature disparity between the first and last struts in the heating sequence. For zero-stage guide vanes, the latter factor exerts a more pronounced influence. Notable temperature reductions occur on the trailing edges of three struts downstream of the hot air flow and at the roots of zero-stage guide vanes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Deicing and Anti-Icing of Aircraft (Volume IV))

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26 pages, 2693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep-Reinforcement-Learning-Enhanced Kriging Modeling Method with Limit State Dominant Sampling for Aeroengine Structural Reliability Analysis

by Jiongran Wen, Yipin Sun, Aifang Chao, Baiyang Zheng, Jian Li and Haozhe Feng

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090752 - 22 Aug 2025

Reliability analysis of aeroengine structures is a critical task in aerospace engineering, but traditional methods often face challenges of low computational efficiency and insufficient accuracy when dealing with complex, high-dimensional, and nonlinear problems. This paper proposes a novel reliability assessment method (AC-Kriging) based [...] Read more.

Reliability analysis of aeroengine structures is a critical task in aerospace engineering, but traditional methods often face challenges of low computational efficiency and insufficient accuracy when dealing with complex, high-dimensional, and nonlinear problems. This paper proposes a novel reliability assessment method (AC-Kriging) based on the Actor–Critic network and Kriging surrogate models to address these issues. The Actor network optimizes the sampling strategy for design variables, making sampling more efficient. The Critic network assesses the reliability of these samples to ensure accurate results, while a Kriging surrogate model replaces expensive finite element simulations and cuts computational cost. Three case studies demonstrate that AC-Kriging significantly outperforms traditional methods in both sampling efficiency and reliability estimation accuracy. This research provides an efficient and reliable solution for reliability analysis of aeroengine structures, with important theoretical and engineering application value. Three case studies demonstrate that AC-Kriging significantly outperforms traditional methods in both sampling efficiency and reliability-estimation accuracy, requiring only 52–147 samples to achieve comparable accuracy while maintaining the relative failure probability error within 0.87–7.27%. This research provides an efficient and reliable solution for the reliability analysis of aeroengine structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue State Monitoring and Health Management of Complex Equipment (3rd Edition))

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19 pages, 995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Survey on Personalized Conflict Resolution Approaches in Air Traffic Control

by Justus Renkhoff, Sarah Ternus and Yash Guleria

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090751 - 22 Aug 2025

The global shortage of air traffic controllers (ATCOs) has led to significant challenges. One of them is the high workload of ATCOs, often resulting in flight delays. This makes it essential to develop solutions that reduce ATCOs’ workload in order to increase capacity. [...] Read more.

The global shortage of air traffic controllers (ATCOs) has led to significant challenges. One of them is the high workload of ATCOs, often resulting in flight delays. This makes it essential to develop solutions that reduce ATCOs’ workload in order to increase capacity. One promising approach is the integration of decision-support systems. A typical task for which these systems are used for is the resolution of aircraft conflicts in the upper airspaces. A key challenge in implementing these support systems is to ensure a high acceptance and adoption rate of the proposed advisories. One potential solution to this problem is to personalize the advisories, aligning them with individual ATCOs’ preferences and conflict resolution strategies. As this approach offers many promising research directions, this literature review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of existing research in this domain and highlight potential opportunities and open challenges. Overall, 16 papers are discussed in detail to examine the diversity of conflict resolution strategies among ATCOs, the impact of personalization on the acceptance rate of advisories, the technical feasibility of implementing personalization, and the balance between personalized advisories and operational efficiency. Additionally, this paper highlights the opportunities such personalization presents, along with the unresolved challenges that should be addressed in future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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19 pages, 3947 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Arbitrary Order Virtual Element Method for Free Torsional Vibrations of Beams

by Marco Lo Cascio and Alberto Milazzo

Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 750; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090750 - 22 Aug 2025

In this study, a novel arbitrary order Virtual Element Method (p-VEM) for free torsional vibration analysis of beams with negligible warping is presented. This method can serve as an equivalent beam model for slender aerospace structural components. The proposed formulation utilizes [...] Read more.

In this study, a novel arbitrary order Virtual Element Method (p-VEM) for free torsional vibration analysis of beams with negligible warping is presented. This method can serve as an equivalent beam model for slender aerospace structural components. The proposed formulation utilizes a spatial discretization of the primary variable with implicit virtual functions that are approximated with polynomials of arbitrary order p by employing a suitably defined projection operator and degrees of freedom. From the spatial discretization of the weak form of the equations of motion, the semi-discrete equations of motion are obtained, from which stiffness and mass matrices are derived without the need for additional stabilization. The developed formulation is validated through several case studies, which demonstrate that the p-VEM offers higher accuracy and faster convergence rate compared to traditional modeling approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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22 pages, 2456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Ensemble of Heuristic Adaptive Contract Net Protocol for Efficient Dynamic Data Relay Satellite Scheduling Problem

by Manyi Liu, Guohua Wu, Yi Gu and Qizhang Luo

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 749; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080749 - 21 Aug 2025

Task scheduling in data relay satellite networks (DRSNs) is subject to dynamic disruptions such as resource failures, sudden surges in task demands, and variations in service duration requirements. These disturbances may degrade the performance of pre-established scheduling plans. To improve adaptability and robustness [...] Read more.

Task scheduling in data relay satellite networks (DRSNs) is subject to dynamic disruptions such as resource failures, sudden surges in task demands, and variations in service duration requirements. These disturbances may degrade the performance of pre-established scheduling plans. To improve adaptability and robustness under such uncertainties, this paper presents a dynamic scheduling model for DRSN that integrates comprehensive task constraints and link connectivity requirements. The model aims to maximize overall task utility while minimizing deviations from the original schedule. To efficiently solve this problem, an ensemble heuristic adaptive contract net protocol (EH-ACNP) is developed, which supports dynamic scheduling strategy adaptation and efficient rescheduling through iterative negotiations. Extensive simulation results show that, in scenarios with sudden task surges, the proposed method achieves a 3.1% improvement in yield compared to the state-of-the-art dynamic scheduling algorithm HMCNP, and it also outperforms HMCNP in scenarios involving resource interruptions. Sensitivity analysis further indicates that the algorithm maintains strong robustness when the disposal rate parameter exceeds 0.2. These results highlight the practical potential of the EH-ACNP for dynamic scheduling in complex and uncertain DRSN environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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23 pages, 8922 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Parameter Prediction Model of S-Shaped Inlet Based on FCM-NDAPSO-RBF Neural Network

by Ye Wei, Lingfei Xiao, Xiaole Zhang, Junyuan Hu and Jie Li

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 748; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080748 - 21 Aug 2025

To address the inefficiencies of traditional numerical simulations and the high cost of experimental validation in the aerodynamic–stealth integrated design of S-shaped inlets for aero-engines, this study proposes a novel parameter prediction model based on a fuzzy C-means (FCM) clustering and nonlinear dynamic [...] Read more.

To address the inefficiencies of traditional numerical simulations and the high cost of experimental validation in the aerodynamic–stealth integrated design of S-shaped inlets for aero-engines, this study proposes a novel parameter prediction model based on a fuzzy C-means (FCM) clustering and nonlinear dynamic adaptive particle swarm optimization-enhanced radial basis function neural network (NDAPSO-RBFNN). The FCM algorithm is applied to reduce the feature dimensionality of aerodynamic parameters and determine the optimal hidden layer structure of the RBF network using clustering validity indices. Meanwhile, the NDAPSO algorithm introduces a three-stage adaptive inertia weight mechanism to balance global exploration and local exploitation effectively. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed model significantly improves training efficiency and generalization capability. Specifically, the model achieves a root mean square error (RMSE) of

3.81 \times 10^{- 8}

on the training set and

8.26 \times 10^{- 8}

on the test set, demonstrating robust predictive accuracy. Furthermore,

98.3 %

of the predicted values fall within the

y = x \pm 3 β

confidence interval (

β = 1.2 \times 10^{- 7}

). Compared with traditional PSO-RBF models, the number of iterations of NDAPSO-RBF network is lower, the single prediction time of NDAPSO-RBF network is shorter, and the number of calls to the standard deviation of the NDAPSO-RBF network is lower. These results indicate that the proposed model not only provides a reliable and efficient surrogate modeling method for complex inlet flow fields but also offers a promising approach for real-time multi-objective aerodynamic–stealth optimization in aerospace applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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23 pages, 5093 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reentry Trajectory Online Planning and Guidance Method Based on TD3

by Haiqing Wang, Shuaibin An, Jieming Li, Guan Wang and Kai Liu

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080747 - 21 Aug 2025

Aiming at the problem of poor autonomy and weak time performance of reentry trajectory planning for Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV), an online reentry trajectory planning and guidance method based on Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3) is proposed. In view of the [...] Read more.

Aiming at the problem of poor autonomy and weak time performance of reentry trajectory planning for Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV), an online reentry trajectory planning and guidance method based on Twin Delayed Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (TD3) is proposed. In view of the advantage that the drag acceleration can be quickly measured by the airborne inertial navigation equipment, the reference profile adopts the design of the drag acceleration–velocity profile in the reentry corridor. In order to prevent the problem of trajectory angle jump caused by the unsmooth turning point of the section, the section form adopts the form of four multiple functions to ensure the smooth connection of the turning point. Secondly, considering the advantages of the TD3 dual Critic network structure and delay update mechanism to suppress strategy overestimation, the TD3 algorithm framework is used to train multiple strategy networks offline and output profile parameters. Finally, considering the reentry uncertainty and the guidance error caused by the limitation of the bank angle reversal amplitude during lateral guidance, the networks are invoked online many times to solve the profile parameters in real time and update the profile periodically to ensure the rapidity and autonomy of the guidance command generation. The TD3 strategy networks are trained offline and invoked online many times so that the cumulative error in the previous guidance period can be eliminated when the algorithm is called again each time, and the online rapid generation and update of the reentry trajectory is realized, which effectively improves the accuracy and computational efficiency of the landing point. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flight Guidance and Control)

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24 pages, 8138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design Methodology for Fishtailed Pipe Diffusers and Its Application to a High-Pressure Ratio Centrifugal Compressor

by Junnan Liu, Dingxi Wang and Xiuquan Huang

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 746; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080746 - 21 Aug 2025

A high-performance diffuser is crucial for a high-pressure ratio centrifugal compressor to achieve high efficiency. Pipe diffusers have been proven effective in enhancing the performance of such compressors. However, detailed design methodologies for pipe diffusers are scarcely covered in the existing literature. Thus, [...] Read more.

A high-performance diffuser is crucial for a high-pressure ratio centrifugal compressor to achieve high efficiency. Pipe diffusers have been proven effective in enhancing the performance of such compressors. However, detailed design methodologies for pipe diffusers are scarcely covered in the existing literature. Thus, this paper provides a comprehensive design methodology specifically for fishtailed pipe diffusers. This methodology begins by defining the throat and outlet areas using gas-dynamic functions and then establishes the centerline by choosing the angle distributions. Finally, various cross-sectional profiles are defined along the centerline, completing the diffuser’s design. To demonstrate the proposed methodology, a fishtailed pipe diffuser is designed to contrast with the original diffuser of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s High-Efficiency Centrifugal Compressor (NASA HECC). Numerical analysis shows that the fishtailed pipe diffuser increases the compressor’s total pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency over its whole operating range. At the design operating point, the isentropic efficiency and the total pressure ratio are increased by 2.4 percentage points and 2.7%, respectively. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed design methodology for fishtailed pipe diffusers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Progress in Turbomachinery Technology for Propulsion (2nd Edition))

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26 pages, 2825 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a Unified Modeling and Simulation Framework for Space Systems: Integrating Model-Based Systems Engineering with Open Source Multi-Domain Simulation Environments

by Serena Campioli, Giacomo Luccisano, Davide Ferretto and Fabrizio Stesina

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080745 - 21 Aug 2025

The increasing complexity of modern space systems requires a more integrated and scalable approach to their design, analysis, and verification. Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) has emerged as a powerful methodology for managing the complexity of systems through formalized modeling practices, but its integration [...] Read more.

The increasing complexity of modern space systems requires a more integrated and scalable approach to their design, analysis, and verification. Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) has emerged as a powerful methodology for managing the complexity of systems through formalized modeling practices, but its integration with dynamic and domain-specific simulations remains limited. This paper presents the first version of the unified Modeling and Simulation (M&S) framework MOSAiC (Modeling and Simulation Architecture for integrated Complex systems), which connects MBSE with open source, multi-domain simulation environments, with the goal of improving traceability, reusability, and fidelity in the system lifecycle. The architecture proposed here leverages ARCADIA-based models as authoritative sources, interfacing with simulation tools through standardized data exchanges and co-simulation strategies. Using a representative space mission scenario, the framework ability to align functional and physical models with specialized simulations is demonstrated. Results show improved consistency between system models and simulation artifacts, reduced integration costs, and improved early validation of design choices. This work supports the broader vision of digital engineering for space systems, suggesting that a modular, standards-based approach to unifying MBSE and simulation can significantly improve system understanding and development efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On-Board Systems Design for Aerospace Vehicles (2nd Edition))

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23 pages, 4182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Long Sequence Time-Series Forecasting Method for Early Warning of Long Landing Risks with QAR Flight Data

by Zeyuan Zhou, Xiaolei Chong, Zhenglei Chen, Jicheng Zhou, Jichao Zhang and Pengshuo Guo

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 744; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080744 - 21 Aug 2025

Long landings can reduce runway utilization and increase the probability of runway incursions and excursions. Previous studies on long landings often lacked support from actual operational data and primarily relied on event-triggering logic established by airlines for parameter exceedance detection and retrospective analysis. [...] Read more.

Long landings can reduce runway utilization and increase the probability of runway incursions and excursions. Previous studies on long landings often lacked support from actual operational data and primarily relied on event-triggering logic established by airlines for parameter exceedance detection and retrospective analysis. In response, a comprehensive risk prediction framework for aircraft long landings, supported by Quick Access Recorder (QAR) data, was constructed. The framework includes a data analysis pipeline, a sequence prediction model, and performance evaluation metrics for accident warning efficiency. Specifically, approximately 3 million rows of real QAR data were collected, and reasonable landing intervals were extracted based on pilots’ correct landing sightlines, attention allocation, and actual visual scenarios at departure heights. Gradient Boosting Decision Trees (GBDT) were employed to develop a method for extracting landing interval feature data, based on monitored parameters and ranges of landing distance. Additionally, the GBDT-Informer long-sequence time series prediction model was developed to forecast landing distance, accompanied by the construction of effective metrics for evaluating prediction performance. The results indicate that the GBDT-Informer model effectively models the temporal dimensions of landing intervals, accurately predicting ground speed (GS), radio altitude (RALT), and landing distance sequences. Compared to other prediction models, the GBDT-Informer model consistently achieved the smallest RMSE, MAE, and MAPE values, demonstrating high prediction accuracy. This predictive framework allows for the analysis of the coupling relationships among multiple parameters in flight data and their interrelations with exceedance anomalies. The findings can be applied in actual flight landings to promptly assess whether landing distances exceed limits, providing quick references for flight crews during landing or go-around decisions, thereby enhancing operational safety margins during the landing phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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19 pages, 3937 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Method for Chemical Non-Equilibrium Plume Radiation Characteristics of Solid Rocket Motors

by Ruitao Zhang, Yang Liu, Yuxuan Zou, Moding Peng, Zilong Wang and Xiaojing Yu

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 743; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080743 - 21 Aug 2025

The research objectives of engine plume radiation calculation primarily encompass two aspects: (1) addressing the additional heating induced by plume radiation on rocket thermal protection systems and (2) elucidating the variation patterns of spectral radiation intensity for infrared signature identification and tracking. Focusing [...] Read more.

The research objectives of engine plume radiation calculation primarily encompass two aspects: (1) addressing the additional heating induced by plume radiation on rocket thermal protection systems and (2) elucidating the variation patterns of spectral radiation intensity for infrared signature identification and tracking. Focusing on the thermal effects of radiation, this study first calculates the radiative properties of high-temperature combustion gases and particles separately. Subsequently, the radiative properties of mixed droplets with alumina caps are computed and analyzed. Building upon this and incorporating empirical formulas for aluminum droplet combustion, the engine’s radiative properties are calculated, accounting for the presence of mixed droplets. Ultimately, an integrated computational method for engine radiative properties (both internal and external flow fields) is established, which considers the non-equilibrium processes during droplet transformation. The radiative property parameters are then embedded into the fluid dynamics software via multidimensional interpolation. The radiation transfer equation is solved using the discrete ordinates method (DOM) to obtain the radiation intensity distribution within the plume flow field. This work provides technical support for investigating the radiative characteristics of solid rocket engine plumes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flow and Heat Transfer in Solid Rocket Motors)

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16 pages, 1350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Orbit Prediction Methods for ONEWEB Constellation

by Junyu Chen, Zhangyi Wen, Kaihui Hu and Xiangxu Lei

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 742; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080742 - 20 Aug 2025

This study aims to enhance Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite orbit prediction accuracy. We propose the Precise Orbit Determination with Optimized Perturbations (PODOP) method, considering Earth’s non-spherical gravity, atmospheric drag, etc., and a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)-based approach for orbital element time series. [...] Read more.

This study aims to enhance Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite orbit prediction accuracy. We propose the Precise Orbit Determination with Optimized Perturbations (PODOP) method, considering Earth’s non-spherical gravity, atmospheric drag, etc., and a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)-based approach for orbital element time series. Validation shows that PODOP’s 10-day median error is 8.1 km (19% larger than Simplified General Perturbations (SGP4)’s 10.1 km) and LSTM’s 10-day median error is 5.3 km, outperforming SGP4 (48.5 km) and PODOP and improving constellation management and collision prevention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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37 pages, 18414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Clearance Analysis of Rotor–Stator Coupled Structures Under Maneuver Flight Conditions Considering Multi-Physical Fields

by Dongxu Du, Shihao Ma, Yu Zhang, Kunpeng Xu, Junzhe Lin, Shang Lv, Xuedong Sun and Wei Sun

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 741; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080741 - 20 Aug 2025

In the previous studies on the clearance between rotors and stators, only a single physical field or part of the physical fields are considered. In fact, multi-physical fields (inertial moment, temperature, centrifugal, and aerodynamic load) significantly affect the clearance analysis results, especially the [...] Read more.

In the previous studies on the clearance between rotors and stators, only a single physical field or part of the physical fields are considered. In fact, multi-physical fields (inertial moment, temperature, centrifugal, and aerodynamic load) significantly affect the clearance analysis results, especially the inertial load caused by maneuver flight. However, few studies have been found in clearance studies that can comprehensively consider the influence of various loads. To reflect the actual service environment and accurately calculate the clearance, a clearance analysis method is proposed which can consider the inertia moment, temperature, centrifugal, and aerodynamic load simultaneously. Firstly, the dynamic model of the rotor–stator coupled structure is created by using the finite element method. The coupling between blade tenons and disk grooves is realized based on the friction contact way. The bolt connection at the stator flange is simulated by the beam element, and the bearing supports at the rotor are simulated by the spring element. Furthermore, the clearance experiment platform of the rotor–stator coupled structure is constructed, and the validity of the proposed method is verified based on the clearance test results. Finally, the influence of multi-physical fields on the clearance of the rotor–stator coupled structure is investigated, and some new clearance variation rules are found. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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19 pages, 3793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Oscillating Wings to Deliver Air Mass Flow Under Power and Thrust Constraints

by Emin Burak Ozyilmaz and Mustafa Kaya

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 740; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080740 - 20 Aug 2025

An oscillating wing was evaluated for its ability to deliver air mass flow. The evaluation was based on exploring the oscillation parameters that provide a given mass flow rate at the least power requirement with the highest possible thrust generation. Wing oscillation was [...] Read more.

An oscillating wing was evaluated for its ability to deliver air mass flow. The evaluation was based on exploring the oscillation parameters that provide a given mass flow rate at the least power requirement with the highest possible thrust generation. Wing oscillation was defined as coupled pitch and plunge motions. The support vector regression algorithm was implemented as a machine learning tool to link the oscillation parameters to power and thrust values. The required power and generated thrust values were computed by solving the unsteady turbulent flows around the wings. The results were also compared to the performance of an axial flow fan that delivered the same amount of air mass flow. It was found that an oscillating wing is compatible with an axial fan in terms of power requirement and thrust generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Applied Aerodynamics (2nd Edition))

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25 pages, 6919 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Vibration Characteristics of Non-Axisymmetric Exhaust Duct Under Thermal Environment

by Jintao Ding and Lina Zhang

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 739; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080739 - 19 Aug 2025

The exhaust duct of aero-engine exhibits complex vibration response characteristics under the influence of temperature fields and vibration loads. Taking the non-axisymmetric exhaust duct of turboshaft engine as the object of study, a finite element model of the exhaust duct was established using [...] Read more.

The exhaust duct of aero-engine exhibits complex vibration response characteristics under the influence of temperature fields and vibration loads. Taking the non-axisymmetric exhaust duct of turboshaft engine as the object of study, a finite element model of the exhaust duct was established using three-dimensional finite element analysis methods to analyze the thermal modal and random vibration response characteristics under axial loading for large thin-walled non-axisymmetric exhaust ducts. The simulation analysis method was validated through thermal vibration experiments on the scaled model. In a thermal environment, the shape of the power spectral density curves for displacement and stress of the exhaust duct remains largely unchanged in the low-frequency range; however, the response frequencies exhibit a significant forward shift. When subjected to Y-axial loading, the amplitude of the X- and Z-direction displacement response at 1st order (12.96 Hz) and the stress response at 6th order (30.92 Hz) significantly increase. Random vibration loads excite multiple modes of the exhaust duct, with lower-order modes being more easily stimulated. When subjected to X- and Z-axial loading, 1st order (12.96 Hz) has the greatest impact on the X- and Z-direction displacement responses, while 2nd order (16.93 Hz) and 13th order (82.79 Hz) frequencies have the greatest impact on the displacement response in the Y-direction and equivalent stress response. When subjected to Y-axial loading, the 5th order (22.35 Hz) and 12th order (81.69 Hz) modes have the most significant effects on the displacement responses in the X, Y, and Z directions and equivalent stress responses. Attention to these orders is essential during the design process, along with implementing certain stiffness reinforcement measures to reduce response amplitudes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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22 pages, 4646 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis on Characteristics of Mixed Traffic Flow with Intelligent Connected Vehicles at Airport Two-Lane Curbside Based on Traffic Characteristics

by Xin Chang, Weiping Yang, Yao Tang, Zhe Liu and Zheng Liu

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 738; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080738 - 19 Aug 2025

With the growing adoption of connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs), their market penetration is expected to rise. This study investigates the mixed traffic flow dynamics of human-driven vehicles (HDVs) and CAVs at airport terminal curbsides. A two-lane parking simulation model is developed, integrating [...] Read more.

With the growing adoption of connected and autonomous vehicles (CAVs), their market penetration is expected to rise. This study investigates the mixed traffic flow dynamics of human-driven vehicles (HDVs) and CAVs at airport terminal curbsides. A two-lane parking simulation model is developed, integrating the intelligent driver model, PATH-calibrated cooperative adaptive cruise control, and a degraded adaptive cruise control model to capture different driving behaviors. The model accounts for varying time headways among HDV drivers based on their information acceptance levels and imposes departure constraints to enhance safety. Simulation results show that the addition of CAVs can significantly increase the average speed of vehicles and reduce the average delay time. Two metrics are inversely proportional. Specifically, as illustrated by a curbside length of 400 m and a parking demand of 1300 pcph, when the CAV penetration rate p is 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 100%, respectively, compared to p = 0, the average traffic flow speed increases by 1.7%, 6.4%, 15.0%, 27.2%, and 48.7%, respectively. The average delay time decreases by 2.8%, 6.4%, 10.5%, 13.5%, and 20.0%, respectively. Meanwhile, CAVs and HDVs exhibit consistent patterns in terms of parking space utilization: the first stage (0–30% of parking spaces) showed a stable and concentrated trend; the second stage (30–70% of parking spaces) showed a slow downward trend but remained at a high level; the third stage (70–100% of parking spaces) showed a rapid decline at a steady rate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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20 pages, 10047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Environment for Lunar Orbiting Spacecraft Based on Non-Uniform Planetary Infrared Radiation Model

by Xinqi Li, Liying Tan, Jing Ma and Xuemin Qian

Aerospace 2025, 12(8), 737; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12080737 - 19 Aug 2025

Accurate computation of external heat flux is critical for spacecraft thermal analysis and thermal control system design. The traditional method, which adopted the uniform planetary infrared radiation model (UPIRM), is inadequate for lunar orbital missions due to the extreme planetary surface temperature variations. [...] Read more.

Accurate computation of external heat flux is critical for spacecraft thermal analysis and thermal control system design. The traditional method, which adopted the uniform planetary infrared radiation model (UPIRM), is inadequate for lunar orbital missions due to the extreme planetary surface temperature variations. This study proposes an external heat flux calculation method for lunar orbits by integrating a non-uniform lunar surface temperature model derived from Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Diviner radiometric data. Specifically, the lunar surface temperature data were first fitted as functions of latitude (

ψ

) and position angles (

ζ

) through data regression analysis. Then, a comprehensive mathematical framework is established to analyze solar radiation, lunar albedo, and lunar infrared radiation components, incorporating orbital parameters such as beta angle (

β

), orbital inclination (

i

) and so on. Coordinate transformations and numerical integration techniques are employed to evaluate heat flux distributions across cuboidal orbiter surfaces. It is found that the lunar infrared radiation heat flux manifests pronounced fluctuation, peaking at 1023 W/m² near the lunar noon region while plummeting to 20 W/m² near the midnight region under the orbital parameters investigated in this study. This study demonstrates the essential role of the non-uniform planetary infrared radiation model (NUPIRM) in enhancing prediction accuracy by contrast, offering foundational references for thermal management in future lunar and deep-space exploration spacecraft. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerospace Human–Machine and Environmental Control Engineering)

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