Aerospace

19 pages, 598 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Trajectory Planning and Optimisation for Following Drone to Rendezvous Leading Drone by State Estimation with Adaptive Time Horizon

by Javier Lee Hongrui and Sutthiphong Srigrarom

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 606; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070606 - 4 Jul 2025

Abstract

With the increased proliferation of drone use for many purposes, counter drone technology has become crucial. This rapid expansion has inherently introduced significant opportunities and applications. This creates applications such as aerial surveillance, delivery services, agriculture monitoring, and, most importantly, security operations. Due [...] Read more.

With the increased proliferation of drone use for many purposes, counter drone technology has become crucial. This rapid expansion has inherently introduced significant opportunities and applications. This creates applications such as aerial surveillance, delivery services, agriculture monitoring, and, most importantly, security operations. Due to the relative simplicity of learning and operating a small-scale UAV, malicious organizations can field and use UAVs (drones) to form substantial threats. Their interception may then be hindered by evasive manoeuvres performed by the malicious UAV (mUAV). Novice operators may also unintentionally fly UAVs into restricted airspace such as civilian airports, posing a hazard to other air operations. This paper explores predictive trajectory code and methods for the neutralisation of mUAVs by following drones, using state estimation techniques such as the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and particle filter (PF). Interception strategies and optimization techniques are analysed to improve interception efficiency and robustness. The novelty introduced by this paper is the implementation of adaptive time horizon (ATH) and velocity control (VC) in the predictive process. Simulations in MATLAB were used to evaluate the effectiveness of trajectory prediction models and interception strategies against evasive manoeuvres. The tests discussed in this paper then demonstrated the following: the EKF predictive method achieved a significantly higher neutralisation rate (41%) compared to the PF method (30%) in linear trajectory scenarios, and a similar neutralisation rate of 5% in stochastic trajectory scenarios. Later, after incorporating adaptive time horizon (ATH) and 20 velocity control (VC) measures, the EKF method achieved a 98% neutralization rate, demonstrating significant improvement in performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in UAV Technology: Dynamics, Guidance, Navigation, and Control of Transformative Aerial Vehicles)

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23 pages, 769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Urban Air Mobility Scheduling Through Declarative Reasoning and Stakeholder Modeling

by Jeongseok Kim and Kangjin Kim

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070605 - 3 Jul 2025

Abstract

The goal of this paper is to optimize mission schedules for vertical airports (vertiports in short) to satisfy the different needs of stakeholders. We model the problem as a resource-constrained project scheduling problem (RCPSP) to obtain the best resource allocation and schedule. As [...] Read more.

The goal of this paper is to optimize mission schedules for vertical airports (vertiports in short) to satisfy the different needs of stakeholders. We model the problem as a resource-constrained project scheduling problem (RCPSP) to obtain the best resource allocation and schedule. As a new approach to solving the RCPSP, we propose answer set programming (ASP). This is in contrast to the existing research using MILP as a solution to the RCPSP. Our approach can take complex scheduling restrictions and stakeholder-specific requirements. In addition, we formalize and include stakeholder needs using a knowledge representation and reasoning framework. Our experiments show that the proposed method can generate practical schedules that reflect what stakeholders actually need. In particular, we show that our approach can compute optimal schedules more efficiently and flexibly than previous approaches. We believe that this approach is suitable for the dynamic and complex environments of vertiports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Next-Generation Airport Operations and Management)

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28 pages, 3444 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Liquid Pulsed Laser Propulsion

by Sai Li, Baosheng Du, Qianqian Cui, Jifei Ye, Haichao Cui, Heyan Gao, Ying Wang, Yongzan Zheng and Jianhui Han

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070604 - 2 Jul 2025

Abstract

Laser propulsion is a new conceptual technology that drives spacecraft and possesses advantages such as high specific impulse, large payload ratio, and low launch cost. It has potential applications in diverse areas, such as space debris mitigation and removal, microsatellite attitude control, and [...] Read more.

Laser propulsion is a new conceptual technology that drives spacecraft and possesses advantages such as high specific impulse, large payload ratio, and low launch cost. It has potential applications in diverse areas, such as space debris mitigation and removal, microsatellite attitude control, and orbital maneuvering. Liquid pulse laser propulsion has notable advantages among the various laser propulsion systems. We review the concept and the theory of liquid laser propulsion. Then, we categorize the current state of research based on three types of propellants—non-energetic liquids, energetic liquids, and liquid metals—and provide an analysis of the propulsion characteristics arising from the laser ablation of liquids such as water, glycidyl azide polymer (GAP), hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN), and ammonium dinitramide (ADN). We also discuss future research directions and challenges of pulsed liquid laser propulsion. Although experiments have yielded encouraging outcomes due to the distinctive properties of liquid propellants, continued investigation is essential to ensure that this technology performs reliably in actual aerospace applications. Consistent results under both spatial and ground conditions remain a key research content for fully realizing its potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Laser Propulsion Science and Technology (2nd Edition))

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15 pages, 1458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Independence Requirement Analysis for Common-Mode Analysis of Aircraft System Safety Based on AADL

by Hongze Ruan, Fan Qi, Xiaohui Wei, Yadong Zhou and Zhong Lu

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070603 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Common-mode analysis (CMA) is a qualitative analytical method used to support the evaluation of independence in the system safety assessment of civil aircraft. In traditional CMA, independence requirements are usually identified by evaluating the combination of events using the fault tree AND-gates. This [...] Read more.

Common-mode analysis (CMA) is a qualitative analytical method used to support the evaluation of independence in the system safety assessment of civil aircraft. In traditional CMA, independence requirements are usually identified by evaluating the combination of events using the fault tree AND-gates. This approach is cumbersome and highly dependent on the skills and experiences of system safety engineers. An Architecture Analysis and Design Language (AADL)-based methodology is proposed to derive independence requirements for CMA. Error propagation data in AADL is extracted to develop a fault propagation model. Subsequently, potential factors contributing to common-mode failures (CMFs) are identified using the fault propagation model. A Primary Flight Computer (PFC) of an aircraft is used as a case study to illustrate the effectiveness of our proposed method. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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37 pages, 2546 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Advancing Aviation Safety Through Predictive Maintenance: A Machine Learning Approach for Carbon Brake Wear Severity Classification

by Patsy Jammal, Olivia Pinon Fischer, Dimitri N. Mavris and Gregory Wagner

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070602 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

Braking systems are essential to aircraft safety and operational efficiency; however, the variability of carbon brake wear, driven by the intricate interplay of operational and environmental factors, presents challenges for effective maintenance planning. This effort leverages machine learning classifiers to predict wear severity [...] Read more.

Braking systems are essential to aircraft safety and operational efficiency; however, the variability of carbon brake wear, driven by the intricate interplay of operational and environmental factors, presents challenges for effective maintenance planning. This effort leverages machine learning classifiers to predict wear severity using operational data from an airline’s wide-body fleet equipped with wear pin sensors that measure the percentage of carbon pad remaining on each brake. Aircraft-specific metrics from flight data are augmented with weather and airport parameters from FlightAware^® to better capture the operational environment. Through a systematic benchmarking of multiple classifiers, combined with structured hyperparameter tuning and uncertainty quantification, LGBM and Decision Tree models emerge as top performers, achieving predictive accuracies of up to 98.92%. The inclusion of environmental variables substantially improves model performance, with relative humidity and wind direction identified as key predictors. While machine learning has been extensively applied to predictive maintenance contexts, this work advances the field of brake wear prediction by integrating a comprehensive dataset that incorporates operational, environmental, and airport-specific features. In doing so, it addresses a notable gap in the existing literature regarding the impact of contextual variables on brake wear prediction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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34 pages, 10462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inter-Laboratory Characterisation of a Low-Power Channel-Less Hall-Effect Thruster: Performance Comparisons and Lessons Learnt

by Thomas F. Munro-O’Brien, Mohamed Ahmed, Andrea Lucca Fabris and Charles N. Ryan

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070601 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

A collaborative inter-laboratory study was conducted to characterise the performance of the novel 250 W External Discharge Plasma Thruster (XPT) with a channel-less Hall effect-type thruster designed to address lifetime limitations and lower-power efficiency challenges in conventional Hall effect thrusters. This study aimed [...] Read more.

A collaborative inter-laboratory study was conducted to characterise the performance of the novel 250 W External Discharge Plasma Thruster (XPT) with a channel-less Hall effect-type thruster designed to address lifetime limitations and lower-power efficiency challenges in conventional Hall effect thrusters. This study aimed to validate performance measurements across different facilities and thrust stands, investigating potential facility effects on thrust characterisation. Performance testing was conducted both at the University of Surrey using a torsional thrust balance and at the University of Southampton with a double inverted pendulum thrust stand, providing independent verification of the thrust and efficiency metrics. The comparison highlighted the importance of cross-facility testing with differing background pressures, calibration methods, and thrust balance types. These differences provide valuable insights, ensuring more robust and reliable low-power thruster characterisation. The XPT thruster demonstrated consistent performance across both the University of Surrey and University of Southampton facilities, with thrust levels ranging from 1.60 mN to 11.8 mN, specific impulses from 327 s to 1067 s, and anode efficiencies up to 11%. Higher anode voltages and mass fluxes at Southampton enabled extended operational envelopes, revealing performance plateaus at elevated powers, particularly for flow rates above 8 sccm. Cross-facility testing highlighted facility-dependent influences, with Southampton achieving a higher thrust and specific impulse at lower flow rates (5–6 sccm) due to increased anode currents, while discrepancies between test sites of up to 25% were observed at higher flow rates (8–10 sccm) and powers above 200 W. Characterisation identified an optimal operating range at 200 W of anode power with a mass flux below 8 sccm. This work underscores the importance of inter-laboratory validation in electric propulsion testing and provides insights into the best practices for assessing next-generation Hall effect-type thrusters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Astronautics & Space Science)

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24 pages, 7077 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Manufacturing Process of Stealth Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Exhaust Nozzles Based on Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Silicon Carbide Matrix Composites

by Byeong-Joo Kim, Jae Won Kim, Man Young Lee, Jong Kyoo Park, Nam Choon Cho and Cheul Woo Baek

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070600 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

This study presents the development of a manufacturing process for a double-serpentine (DS) exhaust nozzle for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) based on carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites (C/SiCs). The DS nozzle is designed to reduce infrared emissions from hot exhaust plumes, a [...] Read more.

This study presents the development of a manufacturing process for a double-serpentine (DS) exhaust nozzle for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) based on carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composites (C/SiCs). The DS nozzle is designed to reduce infrared emissions from hot exhaust plumes, a critical factor in enhancing stealth performance during UAV operations. The proposed nozzle structure was fabricated using a multilayer configuration consisting of an inner C/SiC layer for thermal and oxidation resistance, a silica–phenolic insulation layer to suppress heat transfer, and an outer carbon fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composite (CFRPMC) for mechanical reinforcement. The C/SiC layer was produced by liquid silicon infiltration, preceded by pyrolysis and densification of a phenolic-based CFRPMC preform. The final nozzle was assembled through precision machining and bonding of segmented components, followed by lamination of the insulation and outer layers. Mechanical and thermal property tests confirmed the structural integrity and performance under high-temperature conditions. Additionally, oxidation and ablation tests demonstrated the excellent durability of the developed C/SiC. The results indicate that the developed process is suitable for producing large-scale, complex-shaped, high-temperature composite structures for stealth UAV applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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26 pages, 6535 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aerodynamic Optimization of Morphing Airfoil by PCA and Optimization-Guided Data Augmentation

by Ao Guo, Jing Wang, Miao Zhang and Han Wang

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070599 - 1 Jul 2025

Abstract

An aircraft that has been carefully optimized for a single flight condition will tend to perform poorly at other flight conditions. For aircraft such as long-haul airliners, this is not necessarily a problem, since the cruise condition so heavily dominates a typical mission. [...] Read more.

An aircraft that has been carefully optimized for a single flight condition will tend to perform poorly at other flight conditions. For aircraft such as long-haul airliners, this is not necessarily a problem, since the cruise condition so heavily dominates a typical mission. However, other aircraft, such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), may be expected to perform well at a wide range of flight conditions. Morphing systems may be a solution to this problem, as they allow the aircraft to adapt its shape to produce optimum performance at each flight condition. This study proposes an aerodynamic optimization framework for morphing airfoils by integrating Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for geometric dimensionality reduction and deep learning (DL) for surrogate modeling, alongside an optimization-guided data augmentation strategy. By employing PCA, the geometric dimensionality of airfoil surfaces is reduced from 24 to 18 design variables while preserving 100% shape fidelity, thus establishing a compressed morphing parameterization space. A Multi-Island Genetic Algorithm (MIGA) efficiently explores the reduced design space, while iterative retraining of the surrogate model enhances prediction accuracy, particularly in high-performance regions. Additionally, Shapley Additive Explanation (SHAP) analysis reveals interpretable correlations between principal component modes and aerodynamic performances. Experimental results show that the optimized airfoil achieves a 54.66% increase in low-speed cruise lift-to-drag ratio and 10.90% higher climb lift compared to the baseline. Overall, the proposed framework not only enhances the adaptability of morphing airfoils across various low-speed flight conditions but also facilitates targeted surrogate refinement and efficient data acquisition in high-performance regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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30 pages, 6330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design to Deployment: Flight Schedule-Based Analysis of Hybrid Electric Aircraft Variants in U.S. Regional Carrier Operations

by Emma Cassidy, Paul R. Mokotoff, Yilin Deng, Michael Ikeda, Kathryn Kirsch, Max Z. Li and Gokcin Cinar

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070598 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study evaluates the feasibility and benefits of introducing battery-powered hybrid electric aircraft (HEA) into regional airline operations. Using 2019 U.S. domestic flight data, the ERJ175LR is selected as a representative aircraft, and several HEA variants are designed to match its mission profile [...] Read more.

This study evaluates the feasibility and benefits of introducing battery-powered hybrid electric aircraft (HEA) into regional airline operations. Using 2019 U.S. domestic flight data, the ERJ175LR is selected as a representative aircraft, and several HEA variants are designed to match its mission profile under different battery technologies and power management strategies. These configurations are then tested across over 800 actual daily flight sequences flown by a regional airline. The results show that well-designed HEA can achieve 3–7% fuel savings compared to conventional aircraft, with several variants able to complete all scheduled missions without disrupting turnaround times. These findings suggest that HEA can be integrated into today’s airline operations, particularly for short-haul routes, without the need for major infrastructure or scheduling changes, and highlight opportunities for future co-optimization of aircraft design and operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Power Systems and Components for All-Electric Aircraft (2nd Edition))

25 pages, 2703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategy Analysis of Seamlessly Resolving Turbulent Flow Simulations

by Stefan Heinz

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070597 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Modeling of wall-bounded turbulent flows, in particular the hybridization of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and large eddy simulation (LES) methods, has faced serious questions for decades. Specifically, there is continuous research of how usually applied methods such as detached eddy simulation (DES) and [...] Read more.

Modeling of wall-bounded turbulent flows, in particular the hybridization of the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and large eddy simulation (LES) methods, has faced serious questions for decades. Specifically, there is continuous research of how usually applied methods such as detached eddy simulation (DES) and wall-modeled LES (WMLES) can be made more successful in regard to complex, high-Reynolds-number (

R e

) flow simulations. The simple question is how it is possible to enable reliable and cost-efficient predictions of high-

R e

wall-bounded turbulent flows in particular under conditions where data for validation are unavailable. This paper presents a strict analysis of strategies for the design of seamlessly resolving turbulent flow simulations for a wide class of turbulence models. The essential conclusions obtained are the following ones: First, by construction, usually applied methods like DES are incapable of systematically spanning the range from modeled to resolved flow simulations, which implies significant disadvantages. Second, a strict solution for this problem is given by novel continuous eddy simulation (CES) methods, which perform very well. Third, the design of a computational simplification of CES that still outperforms DES appears to be very promising. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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19 pages, 5196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Influence of Tether–Soil Interaction on the Attachment Trajectory of Small Celestial Body Detector

by Yuyan Pei, Yu Yang, Guoning Wei, Yanchen Li, Hao Tian and Yang Zhao

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 596; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070596 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Multi-tethered spacecraft formation refers to a group of spacecraft that are connected by tethers. These spacecraft work together to perform tasks, such as encircling and capturing small celestial bodies. When the multi-tethered spacecraft formation is in the process of encircling and capturing small [...] Read more.

Multi-tethered spacecraft formation refers to a group of spacecraft that are connected by tethers. These spacecraft work together to perform tasks, such as encircling and capturing small celestial bodies. When the multi-tethered spacecraft formation is in the process of encircling and capturing small celestial bodies, there is a significant risk of the tethers colliding with the soil (or surface material) of the small celestial body. Such a collision can affect the trajectory of the small celestial body detector. To address this issue, a coupled dynamic model has been proposed. This model takes the interaction between the tethers and the soil of the small celestial body into account. The discrete element method is used to establish the asteroid soil model, and the multi-body-tethered spacecraft system is simplified into a two-spacecraft system. The detector model is established by using the dual quaternion, and the tether model is established by using the chain rod model combined with the finite element method. Finally, a multi-condition simulation test is carried out. The results show that the influence of tether–soil coupling on the trajectory of the detector is mainly as follows: the influence of tether–soil interaction on the trajectory of the detector is mainly reflected in the displacement of the detector along the axial direction of the tether. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Tether Technology in Space)

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35 pages, 2155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Information Strategy Planning (ISP) for Applying Smart Technologies to Airport Facilities in South Korea

by Sunbae Moon, Gutaek Kim, Heechang Seo, Jiwon Jun and Eunsoo Park

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070595 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

This study aims to develop an information strategy plan (ISP) for the integrated management of airport facility information in South Korea by applying smart technologies such as building information modeling (BIM), digital twins, and openBIM. As the demand for intelligent lifecycle management and [...] Read more.

This study aims to develop an information strategy plan (ISP) for the integrated management of airport facility information in South Korea by applying smart technologies such as building information modeling (BIM), digital twins, and openBIM. As the demand for intelligent lifecycle management and efficient facility operations continues to grow, airport infrastructure requires standardized and interoperable systems to manage complex assets and stakeholder collaboration. This research addresses three core challenges facing Korean airports: the lack of sustainable maintenance environments, the absence of data standards and systems, and the insufficiency of user-oriented platforms. Through system analysis, benchmarking, and SWOT assessment, the study proposes a stepwise implementation roadmap consisting of development, integration, and advancement phases and designs a “To-Be” model that incorporates 37 component technologies and a standardized information framework. The proposed ISP supports data-driven airport operations, enhances collaboration, and accelerates digital transformation, ultimately contributing to the development of smart and globally competitive airports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Traffic and Transportation)

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15 pages, 2292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Shaping of a Rocket Nose as a Stage of Preliminary Aerodynamic Modification

by Adrian Szklarski and Robert Głębocki

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 594; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070594 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

The article discusses the problem of a preliminary analytical method for modifying the shape of a rocket’s nose. The purpose of this method is to determine the shape that minimizes aerodynamic drag, in the context of modifying a ballistic missile to incorporate guidance [...] Read more.

The article discusses the problem of a preliminary analytical method for modifying the shape of a rocket’s nose. The purpose of this method is to determine the shape that minimizes aerodynamic drag, in the context of modifying a ballistic missile to incorporate guidance systems. The traditional design process relies on numerical methods such as CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) or machine learning techniques; however, the method presented here can serve as a first iteration to support the design. Advanced simulation tools are often expensive and difficult to access for smaller companies, while open-source software can sometimes be unreliable, difficult to use, and incompatible with professional solutions. This can pose a challenge for businesses planning to collaborate in the future with large corporations that rely on advanced engineering tools. The proposed solution, as previously mentioned, provides a starting point for the entire design process. The approach has been shown to be sufficient from the design work. The entire process was validated during test range trials, during which rockets were launched, and the flight measurement results accurately reflected the aerodynamic properties of the missiles. In the next stages of the project, numerical methods including CFD simulations are planned to verify the analytical results and enable further aerodynamic modification of the design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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26 pages, 4613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Neural Network-Based Fixed-Time Trajectory Tracking Control of Space Robot with Uncertainties and Input Nonlinearities

by Haiping Ai, Lei Jiang, An Zhu and Xiaodong Fu

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 593; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070593 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

In this paper, a fixed-time control strategy based on neural networks is proposed for a space robot with an input dead zone. First, a model-based control method is proposed based on the fixed-time convergence framework. Due to internal errors and external environmental disturbances, [...] Read more.

In this paper, a fixed-time control strategy based on neural networks is proposed for a space robot with an input dead zone. First, a model-based control method is proposed based on the fixed-time convergence framework. Due to internal errors and external environmental disturbances, the inertial parameters of dynamic models generally exhibit uncertainties, and model-based control methods may exhibit deviations in trajectory tracking. In order to counteract the adverse effects of uncertain inertial parameters on the system and ensure the stability of the control system, an adaptive learning control method based on neural networks is further proposed. To enhance the learning rate of neural networks and achieve the convergence of neural weights within a fixed time, a neural network update rate combined with virtual control rate is proposed. In addition, considering the issue of the joint input dead zone affecting the precision and stability of the space robot, a novel adaptive law is proposed in conjunction with system error signal feedback to mitigate adverse effects. According to the Lyapunov stability theory, the stability of the closed-loop system is proven, with the trajectory tracking error converging to a small neighborhood around zero. Finally, numerical simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of the control algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Space Mechanisms and Robots)

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16 pages, 5698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Airworthiness Compliance Methods for Low-Cost Wet Composite Structures in General Aviation Aircraft

by Xiuzhi Liu, Shuang Zheng and Fengtian Yang

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 592; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070592 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

With the continuous development of new aircraft, the application of low-cost composite materials technology still encounters numerous challenges and issues. The development of low-cost composite technology, while ensuring the high reliability of aircraft components, has become a common concern among aerospace composites. The [...] Read more.

With the continuous development of new aircraft, the application of low-cost composite materials technology still encounters numerous challenges and issues. The development of low-cost composite technology, while ensuring the high reliability of aircraft components, has become a common concern among aerospace composites. The research presented in this paper examines the findings related to the conformity verification process of an electric aircraft in China. This is an all-composite structural general aviation aircraft certified under CCAR Part 23. This study focuses on the quality characteristics of low-cost wet vacuum bagging composites, addressing the causes and effects of high porosity in the manufacturing process. Based on the research findings, a relationship between porosity and the strength of wet vacuum bagging composites is established. Consequently, a safe and reliable method for ensuring airworthiness conformity of low-cost composites is proposed and implemented in the aircraft type’s conformity verification. Furthermore, this paper discusses the development trends of low-cost composites for general aviation, providing valuable insights for the advancement of low-cost technologies in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Airworthiness, Safety and Reliability of Aircraft)

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26 pages, 6918 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Coordinated Reentry Guidance with A* and Deep Reinforcement Learning for Hypersonic Morphing Vehicles Under Multiple No-Fly Zones

by Cunyu Bao, Xingchen Li, Weile Xu, Guojian Tang and Wen Yao

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070591 - 30 Jun 2025

Abstract

Hypersonic morphing vehicles (HMVs), renowned for their adaptive structural reconfiguration and cross-domain maneuverability, confront formidable reentry guidance challenges under multiple no-fly zones, stringent path constraints, and nonlinear dynamics exacerbated by morphing-induced aerodynamic uncertainties. To address these issues, this study proposes a hierarchical framework [...] Read more.

Hypersonic morphing vehicles (HMVs), renowned for their adaptive structural reconfiguration and cross-domain maneuverability, confront formidable reentry guidance challenges under multiple no-fly zones, stringent path constraints, and nonlinear dynamics exacerbated by morphing-induced aerodynamic uncertainties. To address these issues, this study proposes a hierarchical framework integrating an A-based energy-optimal waypoint planner, a deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG)-driven morphing policy network, and a quasi-equilibrium glide condition (QEGC) guidance law with continuous sliding mode control. The A* algorithm generates heuristic trajectories circumventing no-fly zones, reducing the evaluation function by 6.2% compared to greedy methods, while DDPG optimizes sweep angles to minimize velocity loss and terminal errors (0.09 km position, 0.01 m/s velocity). The QEGC law ensures robust longitudinal-lateral tracking via smooth hyperbolic tangent switching. Simulations demonstrate generalization across diverse targets (terminal errors < 0.24 km) and robustness under Monte Carlo deviations (0.263 ± 0.184 km range, −12.7 ± 42.93 m/s velocity). This work bridges global trajectory planning with real-time morphing adaptation, advancing intelligent HMV control. Future research will extend this framework to ascent/dive phases and optimize its computational efficiency for onboard deployment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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20 pages, 5011 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vector Field-Based Robust Quadrotor Landing on a Moving Ground Platform

by Woohyun Byun, Soobin Huh, Hyeokjae Jang, Suhyeong Yu, Sungwon Lim, Seokwon Lee and Woochul Nam

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 590; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070590 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

The autonomous landing of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) on moving platforms has potential applications across various domains. However, robust landing remains challenging because the detection reliability of UAVs decreases when the UAV is close to a moving platform. To address this issue, this [...] Read more.

The autonomous landing of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) on moving platforms has potential applications across various domains. However, robust landing remains challenging because the detection reliability of UAVs decreases when the UAV is close to a moving platform. To address this issue, this paper proposes a novel landing strategy that ensures a high detection rate. First, a robust detectable region was established by considering the sensing range and maneuverability limitations of the UAV. Second, a vector field was designed to guide the UAV to the moving platform while remaining in a robust detectable region. Next, safe and accurate landings were achieved by considering the current velocity and vector field. The landing strategy was validated through outdoor flight experiments. A quadrotor equipped with a gimbal-mounted camera was used, and a fractal marker was attached to the moving platform for detection and tracking. When the moving platform moved at a speed of 2–4.3 m/s, the UAV successfully landed on the platform with a distance error of 0.4 m. Because of the robust detectable region and vector field, the detection was conducted with a high success rate (94.9%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flight Guidance and Control)

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21 pages, 4995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constant Strain Aging Model of HTPB Propellant Involving Thermal–Mechanical Coupled Effects

by Pengju Qin, Xiangyu Zhang, Kai Jiang and Jiming Cheng

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070589 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

To investigate the aging behavior of HTPB composite solid propellant under constant strain conditions, this study analyzed the aging patterns of the propellant’s maximum elongation at four temperatures (323.15 K–343.15 K) and five strain levels (0–18%) using thermal–mechanical coupled accelerated aging tests. The [...] Read more.

To investigate the aging behavior of HTPB composite solid propellant under constant strain conditions, this study analyzed the aging patterns of the propellant’s maximum elongation at four temperatures (323.15 K–343.15 K) and five strain levels (0–18%) using thermal–mechanical coupled accelerated aging tests. The results show that the maximum elongation initially increases, then decreases under constant strain conditions. To measure the mechanical work-induced decrease in the activation motor, we created a modified Arrhenius model with a strain correction factor based on empirical observations. The acceleration coefficient of a solid motor grain at the accelerated aging temperature (323.15 K) in comparison to the long-term storage temperature (293.15 K) was found to be 20.08 through finite element analysis. This means 206.80 days at the accelerated aging temperature is equivalent to 10 years at the long-term storage temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion of Solid Propellants)

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40 pages, 3707 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Gas Path Fault Diagnosis for Aeroengines Based on Enhanced State-Space Modeling and State Tracking

by Siyan Cao, Hongfu Zuo, Xincan Zhao and Chunyi Xia

Aerospace 2025, 12(7), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12070588 - 29 Jun 2025

Abstract

Failures in gas path components pose significant risks to aeroengine performance and safety. Traditional fault diagnosis methods often require extensive data and struggle with real-time applications. This study addresses these critical limitations in traditional studies through physics-informed modeling and adaptive estimation. A nonlinear [...] Read more.

Failures in gas path components pose significant risks to aeroengine performance and safety. Traditional fault diagnosis methods often require extensive data and struggle with real-time applications. This study addresses these critical limitations in traditional studies through physics-informed modeling and adaptive estimation. A nonlinear component-level model of the JT9D engine is developed through aero-thermodynamic governing equations, enhanced by a dual-loop iterative cycle combining Newton–Raphson steady-state resolution with integration-based dynamic convergence. An augmented state-space model that linearizes nonlinear dynamic models while incorporating gas path health characteristics as control inputs is novelly proposed, supported by similarity-criterion normalization to mitigate matrix ill-conditioning. A hybrid identification algorithm is proposed, synergizing partial derivative analysis with least squares fitting, which uniquely combines non-iterative perturbation advantages with high-precision least squares. This paper proposes a novel enhanced Kalman filter through integral compensation and three-dimensional interpolation, enabling real-time parameter updates across flight envelopes. The experimental results demonstrate a 0.714–2.953% RMSE in fault diagnosis performance, a 3.619% accuracy enhancement over traditional sliding mode observer algorithms, and 2.11 s reduction in settling time, eliminating noise accumulation. The model maintains dynamic trend consistency and steady-state accuracy with errors of 0.482–0.039%. This work shows marked improvements in temporal resolution, diagnostic accuracy, and flight envelope adaptability compared to conventional approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)

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Aerospace

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