The Determinants of Decent Work in Moroccan Cooperatives and Implications for Public Action: Toward Public Action through Determinants

Abstract

In a context marked by growing inequalities and sustainable development challenges, Moroccan cooperatives represent an opportunity to reconcile economic objectives with social issues. Rooted in principles of solidarity and democratic participation, these entities play a significant role in promoting decent work in alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The main objective of this study is to identify and analyze the determinants of decent work within Moroccan cooperatives in order to propose ways of improving working conditions and worker well-being. A survey of 394 Moroccan cooperatives and a data analysis using RCM regressions were used to assess the influence of employees’ socio-professional characteristics, the organizational specificities of cooperatives, and public action on decent work. The results indicate that factors such as youth, employee level of education, the gender of employees and managers, financial performance, and the quality of cooperative governance are decisive factors in the quality of decent work. Public action, in particular government support combining financial and technical measures, is identified to have a positive impact on working conditions. This research highlights the importance for public policy of supporting education and vocational training, promoting gender equality, improving cooperative management, and effectively structuring government support to maximize its positive impact on decent work. These findings offer concrete avenues for policymakers and cooperative managers to improve worker well-being and contribute to the SDGs. By addressing the challenges identified and implementing targeted strategies, it is possible to move toward more inclusive economic growth and decent work for all within the Moroccan context.

1. Introduction

In a global context marked by persistent economic inequality and high rates of unemployment, the Moroccan labor market is in the throes of change, facing a number of structural challenges. These include low rates of inclusion of young people and women in the labor market, with women’s economic participation limited to just 22.6% (HCP, 2022), as well as the predominance of low-quality jobs often associated with the informal sector. A lack of new jobs and an unemployment rate of 11.8% (HCP, 2022) exacerbate this worrying situation.

In view of these facts, it is essential to examine other components of the labor market, such as cooperatives, and to understand their role in job creation in Morocco. Cooperatives currently stand out as crucial players in the promotion of decent work and social entrepreneurship. Thanks to their local roots, they are able to reach often-marginalized populations, particularly rural women. In fact, almost 640,000 rural women in an inactive situation could join the job market, i.e., nearly 22% of inactive women aged between 15 and 65 (HCP).

Because of their inclusive and participative model, cooperatives offer unique opportunities for the integration of these vulnerable groups. Their contribution to the national GDP, although limited to 1.5% (CESE, 2022), represents a solid basis for future sustainable growth. In 2022, cooperatives created 175,000 direct jobs (ODECO, 2022), and Morocco has 53,437 cooperatives with 719,883 members. These figures are a testament to the positive momentum of cooperatives and their potential to transform the country’s economic and social landscape.

The emergence of cooperatives as vectors of economic and social transformation is arousing growing interest in the field of social science research. In a world faced with growing inequalities and sustainable development challenges, these entities offer an opportunity to reconcile economic imperatives with social and environmental objectives. Rooted in principles of solidarity, equity, and democratic participation, cooperatives are positioned at the forefront of efforts to promote decent work and contribute to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The notion of decent work, enriched by the constituent elements defined by the ILO (1999) such as job security, an adequate income, safe working conditions, and access to adequate health care, offers a framework for assessing the role of cooperatives in strengthening socio-economic development and workers’ well-being. This perspective is more relevant in the context of the SDGs, particularly SDG 8, which aims for inclusive and sustainable economic growth as well as decent work for all. Recommendation 193 of the International Labor Organization (ILO), provided in 2002, characterizes cooperatives by their democratic commitment and their orientation toward satisfying the economic, social, and cultural needs of their members. This underlines the intrinsic alignment of cooperatives with the principles of decent work, defined by Ghai (2003) and Rodgers (1995) as a framework integrating employment, income, security, and social dialogue which is essential for socio-economic progress and the well-being of workers.

Cooperatives are identified as entities which promote solidarity, equity, and social responsibility, values that are fundamental to ensuring a fair and safe working environment. This alignment is crucial in the Moroccan context, where cooperatives play a significant role in the national economy, offering considerable potential for creating jobs and promoting sustainable development. Through their economic and social structure, cooperatives play an essential role in promoting decent work. The specific challenges faced by certain populations, notably youths and women, in accessing decent work are also documented. O’Higgins (2017) and the OECD (2016) highlight the increased vulnerability of youths in the labor market, while Finlay (2021) highlights the structural barriers and gender discrimination limiting women’s access to quality jobs. These elements justify the importance of the issue addressed in this research, which aims to understand the determinants of decent work in Moroccan cooperatives and their implications for public action. The methodology of this study is based on a quantitative survey of Moroccan cooperatives. A total of 437 valid questionnaires were collected, enabling data analysis using RLS regressions. This paper begins with a review of the literature and sets out the theoretical underpinnings of the research hypotheses. The methodology adopted is then described, followed by an analysis of the results obtained. Finally, the theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed before this manuscript concludes with the main contributions of this study.

2. Literature Review

Cooperatives, as defined by the ICA (1995) and ILO Recommendation 193 (2002), are characterized by their democratic nature and their orientation toward the collective satisfaction of their members’ economic, social, and cultural needs. This characterization underlines the synergy between cooperatives and social enterprises, highlighting principles such as solidarity, equity, and social responsibility, which are fundamental to promoting a fair and safe working environment. Ghai (2003) and Rodgers (1995) conceptualized decent work as a framework integrating work, employment, and social progress, with particular emphasis on the promotion of rights, employment, security, and social dialogue. This global approach reaffirms the importance of decent work as a foundation for socio-economic progress and the well-being of workers. Decent work is defined by the ILO (1999) as “work that is productive, fairly remunerated and carried out in conditions of freedom, equity, security and respect for human dignity”. The ILO specifies the constituent elements of decent work, such as job security, an adequate income, safe working conditions, and access to adequate health care, underlining its role in sustainable development. In addition, decent work is based on four key dimensions: remuneration, which includes basic pay, fringe benefits, bonuses, and compensation, ensuring a dignified life free from poverty; social security, encompassing protection systems covering life’s risks such as sickness, accidents at work, unemployment, old age, and maternity; job security, including protection against unfair dismissal, the possibility of career development, and safe working conditions; and social dialogue, fostering communication and negotiation between employers, workers, and their representatives. In short, decent work is characterized by fair remuneration, adequate social security, robust job security, and constructive social dialogue, thus contributing to dignity, equality, and fairness for all workers.

A cooperative’s commitment to these ideals is demonstrated by its significant contribution to job creation and the promotion of sustainable development. The International Organization of Industrial Production and Service Cooperatives (CICOPA 2017) reports that cooperatives provide direct and indirect employment to nearly 10% of the world’s population, demonstrating their major economic and social impact. Eum (2017) recognizes cooperatives as entities in which economic and social dimensions intertwine, affirming their role in promoting decent work. The United Nations (2015) highlights the link between decent work and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular SDG 8, which aims for inclusive and sustainable economic growth and decent and productive work for all. This global recognition attests to the importance of decent work not only as a fundamental human right but also as a vector for global socio-economic development. In this context, Kuriakose and Iyer (2020), Wanyama (2014), and other researchers identify cooperatives as key partners in achieving the SDGs. Their commitment to democracy, income enhancement, social inclusion, and environmental protection illustrates the potential of cooperatives to contribute to a fairer, more sustainable global economy.

2.1. Socio-Professional Characteristics of Employees

Youths face major challenges in accessing decent jobs which are exacerbated by an ever-changing labor market. This vulnerability is compounded by barriers such as school dropout and a lack of social support, as highlighted by O’Higgins (2017) and the OECD (2016), making access to decent work particularly difficult for young people. The ILO (2018) notes the increased vulnerability of low-skilled young people to unemployment and precariousness, highlighting multiple challenges facing young people in their quest for decent work. This situation is compounded by less collective representation and reduced social protection compared to previous generations, indicating deteriorating working conditions for young people (Benach et al. 2014). Education and training are emerging as essential vectors for navigating this difficult landscape. SDG 4 stresses the importance of equal access to quality education, a point endorsed by Savickas et al. (2009), who highlight professional adaptability as the key to navigating career transitions. This adaptability, reinforced by a solid education, enables young employees to overcome economic and technological challenges. Bendassolli et al. (2015) and Michaelson et al. (2014) illustrate the influence of education on the search for meaning and satisfaction in work, which are essential components of decent work. Furthermore, Chan (2016) highlights the importance of higher education in developing skills, thereby increasing the competitiveness of young people in the labor market. Jimeno and Rodríguez-Palenzuela (2002), Mroz and Savage (2006), and Bell and Blanchflower (2011) find that education significantly improves the employment prospects of young people, even in a fluctuating economic context. Aligning education with market needs, as pointed out by O’Reilly et al. (2015), is crucial to enhancing young people’s employability. Thus, the literature suggests a correlation between education, vocational adaptability, and access to decent work, establishing education as a fundamental pillar in preparing young people for decent work.

Progress toward decent work for women is hampered by multifaceted obstacles, marked by gender discrimination, and reinforced by economic and socio-cultural structures. Traditional gender roles, which confine women to the domestic sphere, reduce their participation and opportunities in the labor market, a phenomenon documented by Lee et al. (2007), who illustrate how family expectations limit women’s professional engagement. Finlay (2021) deepens this analysis by highlighting the double workload experienced by women, accentuating gender inequalities in the professional world. This dynamic is exacerbated by restricted access to education and vocational training, placing women in positions of economic vulnerability and precarious employment, as observed by Faridi et al. (2009). The neoliberal framework has encouraged a “feminization of work”, with an increase in women’s integration into the labor market, often under unfavorable conditions (Fontana 2013). These conditions are exacerbated by gender discrimination, including job insecurity (Gammage and Stevanovic 2016; Rahman et al. 2018). Cahaya and Hervina (2019) denounce persistent wage disparities between men and women even when variables such as education and experience are considered, revealing institutionalized inequalities.

2.2. Leadership and Organizational Characteristics of Cooperatives

Manager education plays a pivotal role in fostering decent work and employee well-being. Goleman et al. (2017) specifically highlight the importance of emotional and social skills, acquired through education, for empathetic and responsible management. Hensel and Visser (2018) outline how transformational leadership, nurtured by quality education, promotes employee well-being by enriching leaders with knowledge and skills essential to supporting their teams. Ghaly et al. (2015) illustrate the role of education in establishing fair and inclusive work practices essential to value creation and effective strategic human resource management. Chen et al. (2016) link these decent work managerial practices to positive outcomes such as employee loyalty and engagement, proving that decent working conditions lead to better company performance. Mirabella et al. (2019) argue that manager education is crucial to the adoption of ethical, high-performance management practices that benefit both employees and the organization. The increasing integration of women into leadership roles is transforming the organizational landscape, steering practices toward greater equity and respect for decent work standards. McGuinness et al. (2016) highlight the influence of psychological qualities and leadership styles typically associated with women, such as altruism and empathy, as crucial in this evolution. Alonso-Almeida et al. (2015) explored how women managers’ commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) leads to pro-decent work policies, highlighting the importance of social and ethical orientation in managerial decisions. Ardito et al. (2021) and Calabrese et al. (2018) observed a positive correlation between gender diversity in management teams and improved organizational performance, particularly regarding decent work and human rights.

Regarding another aspect of organizational characteristics, the size of an organization greatly influences its ability to promote decent work. Parsa et al. (2018) demonstrated that large companies are better positioned to implement ethical employee policies essential for decent work. Bacchetta et al. (2021) highlighted the importance of formal collective bargaining structures and public visibility in pushing companies to respect social and ethical standards. Financial performance also plays a crucial role in the ability to support decent work. Distelhorst and Locke (2018) found that compliance with decent work standards improves corporate competitiveness and profitability. Orzes et al. (2017) highlighted the positive impact of SA8000 certification on productivity and sales performance, underlining the long-term economic benefits of ethical practices and workers’ rights. In the field of good governance, Freeman (1984) believes that the interests of all stakeholders, including employees, must be considered for successful governance. Anand et al. (2015) reinforce this idea by stressing the importance of transparency in increasing corporate accountability and promoting fair working conditions. Mulgan (2006) highlights the role of social innovation in governance in addressing decent work challenges. Adherence to international standards and ethical governance practices, as discussed by Kolk and Van Tulder (2010), is crucial for respecting workers’ rights and promoting decent work. Wettstein (2012) emphasizes the responsibility of companies to actively promote workers’ rights through their governance practices, affirming the inseparable link between ethics in governance and the maintenance of decent work.

Geographical location is a significant determinant of access to decent work, with marked differences between rural and urban areas. Johnston et al. (2022) point out that rural areas, which are dominated by an informal economy, face challenges accentuated by precarious working conditions and limited access to social protection, highlighting significant structural inequalities between these two environments. FAO (2013) discusses decent work deficits in rural areas, including uncertain incomes and unhealthy working conditions, which contribute to poverty and a lack of services, exacerbating deprivation. The distinction between rural and urban economies is also exacerbated by unequal access to infrastructure and services, with urban areas enjoying better conditions thanks to a concentration of economic activities (ILO 2013). Satchi and Temple (2009) emphasize the importance of understanding rural employment dynamics to the design of effective development policies aimed at improving quality of life and providing decent employment opportunities. However, the predominance of informal economies in rural areas presents unique challenges for access to decent work, including the difficulty of enforcing labor laws and promoting decent work standards, compared to urban settings where government and regulatory institutions are closer (Lee and McCann 2011). Ohnsorge and Yu (2021) point to the prevalence of unregulated economic activities in rural areas which result in precarious and labor-intensive forms of work. The UNDP (2021) highlights the need for targeted interventions to formalize informal employment, improve access to social protection, and increase the productivity and remuneration of jobs in rural areas.

2.3. Public Action (Government Support)

An analysis of the role of government support in facilitating the development of cooperatives and their contribution to poverty reduction and the promotion of decent work reveals an interaction between public interventions and cooperative performance. This approach stimulates investment in infrastructure and innovation, demonstrating the importance of financial support in strengthening cooperatives. Grund and Martin (2012) emphasize the importance of technical support and training for cooperative growth, pointing out that the alignment of economic and social objectives through technical support ensures the competitiveness and relevance of cooperatives in their respective markets. Berry (2011) identifies specific benefits associated with cooperatives, such as stable working hours and active participation in business decisions, which improve workers’ quality of life and contribute to poverty reduction.

Austin (2014) recognizes the potential of cooperatives to act as catalysts for social and economic progress, highlighting the significant impact of government support on improving working conditions and reducing precarity. This perspective is complemented by Defourny et al. (2014), who note the importance of a supportive infrastructure, highlighting the need for funding and technical assistance for cooperatives to foster decent work and poverty reduction. Thus, government interventions, including financial and technical support, are crucial to strengthening cooperatives. Such support not only facilitates their development and competitiveness but also strengthens their role in promoting decent work.

3. Data and Methods

3.1. Data

For data collection, we distributed 495 printed questionnaires to managers of Moroccan cooperatives, using snowball sampling to achieve representative diversity. The survey was carried out in the Marrakech–Safi region between November 2023 and February 2024. We also collected 1576 questionnaires from cooperative employees. The questionnaires for managers were designed to gather information on organizational aspects and public support, while those for employees concerned demographic and professional data. Despite rigorous follow-up, only 437 manager questionnaires were recovered, with an overall response rate of 79.6% (

Table 1. Response rates for questionnaires.

	Distributed	Unreturned	Returned	Valid	Invalid	Response Rate
To managers	495	58	437	394	43	79.6%
To employees	1688	96	1592	1576	16	93.4%

Source: authors’ elaboration.

).

To clarify the application of snowball sampling and ensure the representativeness and diversity of our sample of 394 cooperatives, we began our study by identifying three well-established cooperatives in the Marrakech–Safi region, an agricultural cooperative, a craft cooperative, and a service cooperative, selected on the basis of their diversity in terms of size, business sector, and geographical location. The managers of these initial cooperatives then recommended other similar cooperatives in their networks based on specific criteria such as cooperative size, sector of activity, and level of performance. To ensure diversity and representativeness, we defined quotas for each criterion (size, business sector, and geographical location), and each recommended cooperative had to meet at least one of the criteria missing from our sample. With each new recommendation, we validated that the added cooperative met the defined criteria and contributed to the diversity of the sample. We maintained rigorous monitoring, documenting every step of the process and using data management tools to ensure traceability and transparency. Thanks to these steps, we were able to obtain a diverse and representative sample of 394 cooperatives in the Marrakech–Safi region, guaranteeing the reliability and validity of our results.

The manager questionnaire was used to collect information on the organizational aspects of each cooperative, such as its geographic location, governance, performance, manager’s level of education, manager’s gender, the cooperative’s size, the cooperative’s financial performance, government financial support, and government technical support. This information gives us an overview of each cooperative. It is essential for our analytical model as it enables us to verify which determinants influence decent work in combination with employee variables, which will be presented in the next paragraph.

The employee questionnaire comprises a number of independent and dependent variables assessed by means of items on a 5-point Likert scale. The independent variables include employee age, employee education level, and employee gender. Dependent variables, based on International Labour Organization (ILO) criteria and developed in the literature review, include monthly wage, social security, job security, and social dialogue.

Table 2. Socio-demographic profile of employees.

Variables	Scale	Frequency
Gender	Male	51%
	Female	49%
Age	15–24 years old	10%
	25–30 years old	25%
	31–40 years old	30%
	41–50 years old	20%
	41–50 years old	15%
Education level	Illiterate	20%
	Primary	35%
	Secondary	30%
	Higher education (bachelor’s degree or equivalent)	10%
	Higher education (master’s degree or equivalent)	5%
Place of residence	Urban	53%
	Rural	47%
Professional status	Unskilled worker	43%
	Skilled worker	40%
	Technician	9%
	Executive	8%
Sector of activity	Agriculture	64.0%
	Crafts	18.0%
	Argan production	8.0%
	Literacy	0.5%
	Tourism	2.0%
	Trade and/or service	4.0%
	Other	3.5%

Source: authors’ elaboration.

shows the composition of our sample of employees in the 394 cooperatives studied, reflecting significant socio-demographic and occupational diversity. In terms of gender, 51% of employees are men and 49% are women. The age breakdown of participants is as follows: 10% are between 15 and 24, 25% are between 25 and 30, 30% are between 31 and 40, 20% are between 41 and 50, and 15% are over 50. In terms of level of education, 20% are illiterate, 35% completed primary education, 30% completed secondary education, 10% have a higher education diploma (a bachelor’s degree or equivalent), and 5% have a higher diploma (a master’s degree or equivalent). In terms of place of residence, 53% of employees live in urban areas and 47% in rural areas. Professionally, 43% are unskilled workers, 40% are skilled workers, 9% are technicians, and 8% are managers. The cooperatives’ sectors of activity are varied: 64% are in agriculture, 18% are in crafts, 8% are in argan production, 0.5% are in literacy, 2% are in tourism, 4% are in trades or services, and 3.5% are in other sectors.

Descriptive statistics of this study on the determinants of decent work are presented in

Table 3. Descriptive statistics.

Variable	Mean	Median	Max	Min	Std.Dev	Skewn	Kurtos	J-Berra	Probab
DECWRK	2.95246	2.95622	3.38743	2.55567	0.13019	0.03731	3.15568	0.48932	0.78296
REY	0.02908	0.02773	0.06586	0.01538	0.00979	0.61651	3.21157	25.6944	0.00000
ERE	8.56534	9.15351	11.9868	2.02382	2.45879	−0.90754	2.96641	54.1044	0.00000
REY*ERE	0.24944	0.22943	0.65732	0.03403	0.11540	0.73689	3.52755	40.2271	0.00000
GRE	0.51674	0.53378	0.99654	0.01052	0.22175	−0.09934	2.46458	5.35429	0.06875
ELM	11.0736	11.0000	22.0000	3.00000	2.10830	0.89475	6.91686	304.432	0.00000
GCM	0.22588	0.00000	1.00000	0.00000	0.41869	1.31101	2.71877	114.164	0.00000
SIZ	27.6802	28.0000	55.0000	4.00000	10.1145	−0.02594	2.60642	2.58722	0.27427
CFP	1.55928	1.46581	3.43957	0.75296	0.59476	0.60937	2.48664	28.7105	0.00000
GVR	2.65633	2.75367	4.79483	0.23582	0.71670	−0.18226	3.20226	2.85299	0.24014
LOC	0.52284	1.00000	1.00000	0.00000	0.50011	−0.09146	1.00836	65.6678	0.00000
GFS	16425.1	11304.6	210295.5	2195.555	27357.3	5.17401	30.6689	14326.04	0.0000
GTS	3.22275	3.44016	4.91331	0.00000	1.10942	−2.07384	6.71206	508.634	0.00000
GFS*GTS	53942.9	37200.79	829631.3	0.0000	97763.25	5.203177	31.62	15225.95	0.0000

Source: authors’ elaboration.

. The mean of “DECWRK” is 2.952, with a median close to 2.956, indicating a relatively homogeneous distribution. For the gender of the representative employee (“GRE”), there is a slight male predominance, with an average of 0.516. The education level of the representative employee (“ERE”) is centered around the third year of secondary school, with an average of 8.565 years of schooling. The manager’s level of education (“ELM”) is generally good, with an average of 11,073 years of schooling. Measures of skewness and kurtosis show non-normal distributions for some variables, including a marked positive skewness for government financial support and a high kurtosis value, indicating a concentration of values around the mean for some variables.

3.2. The Basic Model

Before looking at the basic model on which we base our work, it makes sense to present the hypotheses of our work, which were developed on the basis of the literature review cited above. These hypotheses, and the associated sub-hypotheses, provide an overview of the aspects we aim to test and validate through our empirical analysis:

➢

H1: Employees’ socio-professional characteristics have an influence on decent work.

▸

H1a: An employee’s youth has a negative influence on access to decent work.

▸

H1b: An employee’s level of education has a positive influence on access to decent work.

▸

H1c: Youth combined with a high level of education positively influences access to decent work.

➢

H2: Male employees benefit more from decent work than female employees.

➢

H3: A manager’s high level of education has a positive influence on decent work.

➢

H4: The gender of the manager has a significant influence on decent work.

➢

H5: The organizational characteristics of cooperatives have a significant influence on decent work.

▸

H5a: Cooperative size significantly influences decent work.

▸

H5b: Cooperative financial performance has a positive influence on decent work.

▸

H5c: Quality governance has a positive influence on decent work.

➢

H6: Urban cooperatives are more likely to adopt decent work standards than rural cooperatives.

➢

H7: Public action (financial and technical government support) has a significant influence on decent work in cooperatives.

▸

H7a: Increased government financial support has a positive influence on decent work.

▸

H7b: Government technical support has a positive influence on decent work.

▸

H7c: A governmental approach combining financial and technical support offers cooperatives the means to significantly improve decent work.

In this research, we use the four ILO dimensions to assess the quality of decent work (“DECWRK”) in Moroccan cooperatives. These dimensions include remuneration, measured by the monthly wage in Moroccan dirhams (MDH); social security, assessed by the number of days declared, weekly working hours, and paid vacations; job security, assessed by job stability and security; and, finally, social dialogue and workers’ rights, assessed by job satisfaction, participation in decision-making, and the ability to defend one’s interests. The continuous variables were weighted to be compatible with the 5-point Likert scale to integrate them into the composite variable of decent work. This assessment is based on the average characteristics of the employees in each cooperative, synthesized using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to create the “DECWRK” variable. The model’s explanatory variables include employee characteristics, cooperative specificities, and government support.

DECWRKi = β0 + β1*REYi + β2*EREi + β3*REYi*EREi + β4*GREi + β5*ELMi + β6*GCMi + β7*SIZi + β8*CFPi + β9*GVRi + β10*LOCi + β11*GFSi + β12*GTSi + β13*GFSi*GTSi + εi

REY (Representative Employee’s Youth) is the inverse of the employee’s age. ERE (the level of education of the representative employee) corresponds to the number of years of education completed by the representative employee, reflecting his/her level of education. REY*ERE combines the employee’s youth and level of education to study their joint effect. GRE (the gender of the representative employee) is a binary variable assessing the impact of gender on decent work; 1 is assigned for men and 0 for women. ELM (the manager’s education level) indicates the number of years of formal education completed by the manager. SIZ (cooperative size) is the number of permanent employees, indicating the size of the cooperative. CFP (cooperative financial performance) is measured by the return on assets, indicating the financial health of the cooperative.

GVR (cooperative governance) is a composite variable assessed based on 5 items which are then synthesized by the PCA to evaluate the quality of internal governance. LOC (geographical location) is a binary variable for urban (1) or rural (0) cooperatives, studying the impact of geographical location. GFS (government financial support) represents the amount of government financial support granted to a cooperative over the last 5 years. GTS (government technical support) measures the quality of government technical support to the cooperative over the past 5 years and is also assessed on a 6-item Likert scale using a PCA. Finally, the GFS*GTS composite variable studies the synergistic effect of financial and technical support.

Table 4. Hypotheses and variables.

Hypothesis	Variable	Expected Correlation
H1	H1a: REY (Representative Employee’s Youth)	Negative
	H1b: ERE (Education Level of Representative Employee)	Positive
	H1c: REY*ERE (combination of Youth and Education Level of Representative Employee)	Positive
H2	GRE (Gender of Representative Employee)	Positive for men
H3	ELM (Education Level of Manager)	Positive
H4	GCM (Gender of Cooperative Manager)	Positive for men
H5	H5a: SIZ (Cooperative Size)	Positive
	H5b: CFP (Cooperative Financial Performance)	Positive
	H5c: GVR (Cooperative Governance)	Positive
H6	LOC (Cooperative Geographic Location)	Positive
H7	H7a: GFS (Government Financial Support)	Positive
	H7b: GTS (Government Technical Support)	Positive
	H7c: GFS*GTS (Financial and Technical Support)	Positive

Source: authors’ elaboration.

presents the research hypotheses, the corresponding variables, and the expected direction of correlation for each hypothesis in the study on the determinants of decent work in cooperatives.

3.3. Empirical Methodology Adopted (Collinearity Problem, Non-Normality of Residuals, and Heteroscedasticity)

The VIF analysis of the OLS regression (

Table 5. Variance inflation factors for OLS regression.

Variable	Uncentered VIF	Centered VIF
C	17,210.20	NA
REY	322.2476	23.58034
ERE	327.1436	16.01940
REY*ERE	316.2818	36.25776
GRE	9.020647	1.025190
ELM	14.10460	1.031479
GCM	2.019409	1.025081
SIZ	26.71353	1.032364
CFP	140.4141	1.023602
GVR	18.37536	1.048151
LOC	10.57700	1.042544
GFS	16,446.21	3.251357
GTS	14,504.50	4886.565
GFS*GTS	14,489.19	4878.358

Source: authors’ elaboration.

) reveals varying levels of multicollinearity among the independent variables. Centered VIFs provide a quantitative perspective on multicollinearity, with particularly high values for “REY”, “ERE”, and “REY*ERE”, indicating very pronounced multicollinearity. Similarly, “GFS” and “GFS*GTS” also exhibit high values. In contrast, variables such as “GRE” and “ELM” have relatively low centered VIFs, suggesting low multicollinearity. These results highlight the importance of adjusting the model to minimize the impact of multicollinearity and enhance the reliability of the conclusions.

Figure 1 shows a normality test for the residuals of the OLS regression. Although the distribution of residuals appears globally symmetrical around zero, with a mean very close to zero and slight positive skewness indicated by a skewness value of 0.187, the kurtosis value of 1.851 shows slight kurtosis with respect to a normal distribution. The Jarque–Bera test confirms the rejection of the normality hypothesis for the residuals. This non-normality can affect the validity of statistical tests and suggests a need to check the model’s specification or the presence of omitted variables.

The results of the Breusch–Pagan–Godfrey test in

Table 6. Heteroscedasticity test (Breusch–Pagan–Godfrey) for OLS regression.

Test		Probability
F-statistic	2.597100	Prob. F (13, 380)	0.0018
Obs*R-squared	32.80130	Prob. Chi-Square (13)	0.0018
Scaled explained SS	33.2625	Prob. Chi-Square (13)	0.0015

Source: authors’ elaboration.

indicate the presence of heteroscedasticity in the regression residuals. The results show a rejection of the null hypothesis of homoscedasticity, meaning that the variance of the regression errors is not constant across all observations. This can compromise the efficiency of ordinary least squares estimates and the reliability of standard statistical tests. Techniques or other forms of correction for heteroscedasticity may be required to obtain efficient estimates of coefficients and robust standard errors.

The empirical choice here is to use the robust least squares method to overcome the problems of residual non-normality and heteroscedasticity. However, it is important to note that this method does not intrinsically solve the multicollinearity problem. For this reason, two auxiliary models were built to deal specifically with this problem. Auxiliary model 1 excludes interaction variables with a high VIF, allowing the effect of each base variable to be assessed individually. Auxiliary model 2 retains these interactions to assess their combined impact. This approach provides a better understanding of the effects of independent variables on the dependent variable, considering problems of collinearity. The two auxiliary models are given below:

Auxiliary model 1:

DECWRKi = β0 + β1*REYi + β2*EREi + β3*GREi + β4*ELMi + β5*GCMi + β6*SIZi + β7*CFPi + β8*GVRi + β9*LOCi + β10*GFSi + β11*GTSi + εi

Auxiliary model 2:

DECWRKi = β0 + β1*REYi*EREi + β2*GREi + β3*ELMi + β4*GCMi + β5*SIZi + β6*CFPi + β7*GVRi + β8*LOCi + β9*GFSi*GTSi + εi

4. Results

4.1. Robustness of RLS Regressions

Ramsey’s RESET test is a procedure commonly used to assess the specification of a regression model, looking for omitted variables or incorrect functional form. The results of the test for auxiliary models 1 and 2 suggest that the functional form of the models is adequate and that there are no obvious signs of omitted variables. Thus, the auxiliary models can be considered correctly specified for the analysis of the determinants of decent work in Moroccan cooperatives (

Table 7. Ramsey RESET tests for the two auxiliary models (variables omitted: squared fitted values).

Test	Auxiliary Model 1			Auxiliary Model 2
	Value	df	Probability	Value	df	Probability
t-statistic	0.382198	381	0.7025	0.229504	383	0.8186
F-statistic	0.146075	(1, 381)	0.7025	0.052672	(1, 383)	0.8186
Likelihood ratio	0.151031	1	0.6976	0.054181	1	0.8159

Source: authors’ elaboration.

).

The VIFs for the two auxiliary models, evaluated using the robust least squares approach, are presented in

Table 8. Variance inflation factors for the two auxiliary models.

Variable	Auxiliary Model 1			Auxiliary Model 2
	Coefficient Variance	Uncentered VIF	Centered VIF	Coefficient Variance	Uncentered VIF	Centered VIF
C	13.05538	5582.781	NA	0.522794	223.8389	NA
REY	9.011953	13.99744	1.024257	-	-	-
ERE	0.000223	21.11087	1.033746	-	-	-
REY*ERE	-	-	-	0.026151	8.879555	1.017930
GRE	0.077594	9.011600	1.024162	0.076478	8.893170	1.010703
ELM	0.000201	14.10438	1.031463	0.000200	14.03613	1.026472
GCM	0.009591	2.019395	1.025073	0.009509	2.004709	1.017619
SIZ	$2.03\times {10}^{-5}$	26.63836	1.029458	$1.99\times {10}^{-5}$	26.24467	1.014244
CFP	0.272269	140.1706	1.021827	0.271757	140.0827	1.021186
GVR	0.101753	18.22020	1.039300	0.100507	18.01965	1.027860
LOC	1.984950	10.54501	1.039390	1.982966	10.54768	1.039653
GFS	$2.32\times {10}^{-6}$	5205.821	1.029172	-	-	-
GTS	0.001841	3.031680	1.021373	-	-	-
GFS*GTS	-	-	-	$3.51\times {10}^{-10}$	3.025504	1.018655

Source: authors’ elaboration.

. In the first auxiliary model, the centered VIFs indicate a notable absence of significant multicollinearity among the explanatory variables, with values close to 1. In the second auxiliary model, the inclusion of the interaction variables REY*ERE and GFS*GTS also does not lead to worrying multicollinearity, with centered VIFs slightly above 1 but remaining below critical thresholds. This shows that the strategy of adopting the two axillary models resolved the multicollinearity problem.

The use of the RLS approach makes it possible to correct for the impact of heteroscedasticity by weighting observations differently. Before opting for this method, the Breusch–Pagan–Godfrey test can be used as a preliminary diagnostic to assess the presence of heteroscedasticity in the residuals of the model estimated by the ordinary least squares method. After fitting a model with robust least squares, this test can be reused to check whether heteroscedasticity has been correctly corrected. Although robust least squares residuals are not interpreted in the same way as ordinary least squares residuals due to weighting, the Breusch–Pagan–Godfrey test can complement this approach by providing a more complete view of the variance structure of the errors. As such, it can be useful as a preliminary diagnostic tool or for validating the effectiveness of heteroscedasticity correction after the application of the robust least squares method. The results presented in

Table 9. Heteroscedasticity test (Breusch–Pagan–Godfrey test).

	Auxiliary Model 1			Auxiliary Model 2
F-statistic	1.439491	Prob. F (11, 382)	0.1528	1.195870	Prob. F (9, 384)	0.2960
Obs*R-squared	15.68178	Prob. Chi-Square (11)	0.1534	10.74203	Prob. Chi-Square (9)	0.2938
Scaled explained SS	16.12923	Prob. Chi-Square (11)	0.1364	11.18563	Prob. Chi-Square (9)	0.2632

Source: authors’ elaboration.

confirm that the RLS method correctly adjusted the estimates to account for heterogeneous error variance.

When using the RLS method, it is crucial to assess the normality of residuals as the classical least squares method assumes a normal distribution of residuals. If this assumption is not verified, estimates may be biased. Robust methods are designed to correct for non-normal distributions. An analysis of the normality of the residuals is therefore essential to determine whether the use of the robust least squares method is justified. If the residuals follow a normal distribution, the classical least squares approach may be appropriate; otherwise, a robust least squares approach is preferable. In our study, the residuals of the auxiliary models estimated by the robust least squares method conform well to a normal distribution, thus ensuring the validity of the statistical tests and the reliability of the coefficient estimates. Figure 2 shows the results of the residual normality tests for our two auxiliary models:

The analysis of the stability of the RLS results is verified by the results of the Studentized residuals test (RStudent) presented in Figure 3. This test compares the values predicted by the model with the values observed, considering the dispersion and distribution of the residuals. Observations with Studentized residuals outside the interval [−2, 2] may indicate outliers requiring special attention. In the data from this study, most observations from both auxiliary models remain within this interval, suggesting a distribution of residuals in line with expectations despite some potential outliers. These results reinforce the stability of the regression estimates obtained by the RLS method.

4.2. RLS Regression Results

The results of the regressions are presented in

Table 10. RLS regression results for the two auxiliary models.

Variable	Auxiliary Model 1				Auxiliary Model 2
	Coefficient	Std. Error	z-Statistic	Prob.	Coefficient	Std. Error	z-Statistic	Prob.
C	−2.862483	3.673466	−0.779232	0.4358	1.290833 *	0.735258	1.755621	0.0792
REY	−1.044187 ***	0.352044	−2.96607	0.0032	-	-	-	-
ERE	−0.000549	0.015194	−0.036108	0.9712	-	-	-	-
REY*ERE	-	-	-	-	3.700595 ***	1.164444	3.177994	0.0016
GRE	0.777808 ***	0.283201	2.746486	0.0063	0.555568 **	0.281218	1.975578	0.0489
ELM	0.034450 **	0.014425	2.388228	0.0174	0.026342 *	0.014384	1.831372	0.0678
GCM	−0.211704 **	0.099565	−2.126293	0.0341	−0.191322 *	0.099162	−1.929392	0.0544
SIZ	0.004591	0.004577	1.003159	0.3164	0.006021	0.004541	1.326024	0.1856
CFP	1.730817 ***	0.530494	3.262652	0.0012	1.594478 ***	0.530109	3.007831	0.0028
GVR	0.705898 **	0.324305	2.176648	0.0301	0.653895 **	0.322383	2.028318	0.0432
LOC	3.243288 **	1.432373	2.264276	0.0241	3.716569 ***	1.431963	2.595437	0.0098
GFS	0.003284 **	0.001549	2.120361	0.0346	-	-	-	-
GTS	−0.017893	0.043623	−0.410176	0.6819	-	-	-	-
GFS*GTS	-	-	-	-	14.195757 ***	4.243166	3.345558	0.0009

Source: authors’ elaboration. *** significant at 1%; ** significant at 5%; * significant at 10%.

. Hypothesis H1a postulates a negative relationship between the youth of employees and the possibility of accessing decent work. The coefficient associated with REY is significantly negative at the 1% threshold in the auxiliary model 1, thus confirming this hypothesis. On the other hand, hypothesis H1b, which links the level of education to access to decent work via the REE variable, is rejected as the REE coefficient is not statistically significant in auxiliary model 1. The combination of employee age and a high level of education, represented by the REY*ERE variable and analyzed in relation to hypothesis H1c, reveals a significantly positive coefficient at the 1% threshold in auxiliary model 2, thus validating this hypothesis. This suggests that the combination of youth and a high level of education favors access to better working conditions since the coefficient is higher than those for REY and ERE taken individually. Concerning hypothesis H2, which explores the influence of male gender on decent work via the GRE variable, the results show a significantly positive coefficient at the 1% threshold in both auxiliary models, confirming that men benefit more, on average, from better working conditions than women.

For hypothesis H3, concerning the influence of the manager’s level of education on the decent work via the ELM variable, the results indicate a significantly positive coefficient at the 1% threshold, thus validating this hypothesis. The effect of the manager’s gender on decent work, examined in the context of hypothesis H4, shows a significant negative coefficient at the 10% threshold in both auxiliary models, thus supporting the hypothesis and indicating less favorable conditions in cooperatives managed by men. An analysis of cooperative size (SIZ) in relation to decent work reveals no significant coefficient; thus, hypothesis H5a is rejected. Cooperative financial performance (CFP) shows a significant positive correlation with decent work quality at the 1% threshold, thus supporting hypothesis H5b. The Cooperative governance variable (GVR) confirms hypothesis H5c with a significant coefficient at the 5% threshold, underlining that good governance is associated with a better quality of decent work.

Hypothesis H6, concerning the effect of cooperative geographical location (LOC) on decent work, is validated with a significant coefficient at the 5% threshold, suggesting that urban cooperatives offer better working conditions compared to those in rural areas. Government financial support (GFS) is positively related to decent work quality, with a significant coefficient at 5%, supporting hypothesis H7a. On the other hand, government technical support (GTS) shows no significant link with the quality of decent work; thus, hypothesis H7b is rejected. Finally, the interaction between financial government support and technical government support, representing hypothesis H7c, shows a significant result at 1%, indicating that the combination of these types of support is linked to better working conditions given that the coefficient is larger than the GFS and GTS coefficients taken individually.

5. Discussion

The results of this study show that young people are more affected by non-decent work, which is in line with the findings of O’Higgins (2017) and the OECD (2016). They highlight the specific challenges young people face in accessing decent jobs. As such, targeted public action is needed to improve the professional integration and working conditions of young people within cooperatives. This means developing interventions aimed at supporting education and training for young people, promoting gender equality, and recognizing the value of education in improving working conditions in Moroccan cooperatives. The absence of a significant positive relationship between educational attainment and decent work, observed in the context of Moroccan cooperatives, concurs with the conclusions of Savickas et al. (2009) on the importance of professional adaptability beyond academic qualifications. Thus, there are other factors, such as experience and specific skills, which play a more decisive role in access to better working conditions. This highlights the need to review policies and practices within Moroccan cooperatives to ensure the proper recognition and valorization of educational qualifications. Thus, it is crucial to develop strategies to support the education of young workers to promote higher standards of decent work.

The significant interaction between employee youth and level of education on decent work highlighted by this study is in line with the work of Jimeno and Rodríguez-Palenzuela (2002) and Mroz and Savage (2006), who also showed that education improves young people’s employment prospects. This finding highlights that the association of youth with high education tends to improve working conditions, with a coefficient for this interaction that is not only significant but also of a greater magnitude than those of the effects of youth and education considered separately. This observation suggests that well-educated young employees not only benefit from skills and knowledge that enhance their job performance but are also potentially better positioned to negotiate more favorable working conditions. This increased ability to negotiate better conditions may stem from greater awareness of labor rights or improved negotiating skills, which are assets that can be enhanced by higher levels of education. This result underlines the importance of adopting policies to support the education of young workers within Moroccan cooperatives, which would contribute not only to the professional development of young employees but also to the establishment of respectful working environments in line with the principles of decent work. The results also highlight the prevalence of more favorable working conditions for men than women within Moroccan cooperatives, underlining existing gender disparities. These results are consistent with studies by Lee et al. (2007) and Finlay (2021) which also showed more favorable working conditions for men, highlighting persistent gender inequality in the world of work. This observation reinforces the need for continued efforts to mitigate these disparities and promote greater equality of opportunity between genders in general and in cooperatives in particular.

The positive correlation between managers’ level of education and decent work confirms the findings of Goleman et al. (2017) and Hensel and Visser (2018), highlighting the beneficial impact of managerial skills influenced by education on working conditions. This result shows the importance of promoting quality managerial training to improve decent work in Moroccan cooperatives. Indeed, cooperatives run by better-trained managers tend to offer better working conditions. This finding suggests that initiatives to strengthen manager education and training could translate into tangible improvements in working conditions within Moroccan cooperatives, making them an effective strategy for promoting decent work. The impact of these elements extends beyond simple administration to directly affect the working environment of employees, thus contributing to the improvement of decent work. By investing in the education of leaders within Moroccan cooperatives, it is possible to significantly improve working standards, promoting a fairer and more equitable working environment. Thus, public action in this direction in favor of education and training for managers appears to be a promising approach to improving the quality of decent work in this sector. Cooperatives run by men offer less advantageous working conditions than those run by women. This finding is echoed in studies by McGuinness et al. (2016) and Alonso-Almeida et al. (2015). This research highlights the positive impact of female leadership on working conditions, suggesting that management qualities associated with women, such as empathy and greater attention to employee needs, can contribute to more decent working practices. Thus, the significant correlation between manager gender and decent work quality in Moroccan cooperatives reaffirms the importance of promoting gender equality in management positions, not only as an ethical imperative but also for its potential positive impact on the working environment. This prompts a reassessment of gender roles within cooperative governance structures and highlights the importance of promoting gender equality as well as developing leadership skills among women. The financial performance of cooperatives is highlighted as a key factor in improving working conditions, which is corroborated by Distelhorst and Locke (2018), showing the importance of financial health for the implementation of high labor standards. A sound financial position not only ensures a cooperative’s sustainability but also enables reinvestment in human capital through training, improvements in working conditions, and employee welfare policies. In this way, public action focused on the economic performance of cooperatives can directly contribute to promoting more decent working conditions by fostering optimized operations and innovation for economic growth and decent work for employees.

Regarding the governance and financial performance of cooperatives, the need for transparent, fair, and efficient management to ensure decent work reaffirms the principles set out by Freeman (1984) and Anand et al. (2015). Transparency and the active participation of employees in decision-making are crucial to creating a respectful working environment conducive to personal and professional development. This perspective is reinforced by the importance attached to financial performance as an enabling factor for decent work, as shown by Distelhorst and Locke (2018). A healthy financial balance sheet enables significant investment in human resources, underlining the symbiotic relationship between a cooperative’s financial health and the quality of its labor practices. As far as governance is concerned, transparent, fair, and efficient management is directly linked to a better quality of decent work. The implementation of good governance practices, such as transparency in decision-making, open communication, and active employee participation, contributes to creating a work environment conducive to personal and professional development. This implies the importance of public action that strengthens managers’ capacity for good governance practices. The differences observed between cooperatives located in urban and rural areas, with an advantage of the former in terms of working conditions, recall the specific challenges identified by Johnston et al. (2022) in rural areas, which are dominated by informal economies. Unequal access to infrastructure and services underlines the importance of targeted development policies to support rural cooperatives, echoing the need to improve working conditions and quality of life in these areas, as discussed by FAO (2013). This means that for cooperatives in rural areas, easier access to infrastructure, resources, and specific support could help improve working conditions. Public action to improve access to resources and support services in rural areas is essential to enable cooperatives, and more broadly, Moroccan businesses, to thrive and offer better working conditions.

When cooperatives benefit from government financial support, they tend to offer more advantageous working conditions. This observation, corroborated by Grund and Martin (2012), highlights the importance of tax incentives and financial assistance in improving the performance and competitiveness of cooperatives. The effectiveness of these financial support measures is particularly notable in their ability to promote higher working standards in response to the demanding criteria of the support programs. However, in contrast to the positive impact of financial support, technical support seems to produce no significant effect on improving working conditions, indicating the absence of a notable correlation that could signal tangible improvements in the quality of decent work. Conversely, an analysis of the combined effect of government financial and technical support offers a more nuanced perspective. Austin (2014) highlighted the transformative potential of cooperatives as vectors of social and economic progress conditional on the receipt of appropriate government support. This synergy between financial and technical support reveals the importance of adopting integrated government strategies to maximize the effectiveness of the support provided. Such a multi-dimensional approach is essential to building cooperative capacity, improving working conditions, and responding effectively to the specific challenges encountered in different contexts. From this global perspective, Defourny et al. (2014) highlight the need for a strong support infrastructure, including both funding and technical assistance, to encourage decent work and contribute effectively to poverty reduction. Public action, by integrating these different forms of support, then becomes more effective in ensuring the sustainable development of cooperatives and the improvement of working conditions within these entities, underlining the importance of close collaboration between cooperatives and government agencies for the effective implementation of support programs.

In conclusion, we present below a summary in

Table 11. Hypothesis status.

Hypothesis	Variable	Hypothesis Status
H1	H1a: REY (Representative Employee’s Youth)	Accepted
	H1b: ERE (Education Level of Representative Employee)	Rejected
	H1c: REY*ERE (combination of Youth and Education Level of Representative Employee)	Accepted
H2	GRE (Gender of Representative Employee)	Accepted
H3	ELM (Education Level of Manager)	Accepted
H4	GCM (Gender of Cooperative Manager)	Accepted
H5	H5a: SIZ (Cooperative Size)	Rejected
	H5b: CFP (Cooperative Financial Performance)	Accepted
	H5c: GVR (Cooperative Governance)	Accepted
H6	LOC (Cooperative Geographic Location)	Accepted
H7	H7a: GFS (Government Financial Support)	Accepted
	H7b: GTS (Government Technical Support)	Rejected
	H7c: GFS*GTS (Financial and Technical Support)	Accepted

Source: authors’ elaboration.

, which provides an overview of the status of our hypotheses, indicating those that have been accepted or rejected following our empirical analysis:

6. Conclusions

This study aims to shed light on the determinants of decent work within Moroccan cooperatives, highlighting key factors such as employee socio-professional characteristics, leadership, and organizational characteristics, as well as the impact of public action. Empirical analyses, based on a quantitative survey of 495 Moroccan cooperatives, reveal the importance of youth, education, and the gender of employees and managers as well as the financial performance and governance of cooperatives in promoting decent work. In addition, they highlight the beneficial effect of public action, particularly when government financial and technical support is combined, on improving working conditions. These results suggest that targeted policies aimed at improving access to education and vocational training, particularly for young people and women, are crucial to strengthening decent work in cooperatives. They also indicate that promoting gender equality in leadership positions can have a positive impact on working conditions, highlighting the need for policies supporting diversity and inclusion in cooperative governance structures. In addition, this study reveals that financial performance and good governance are key to ensuring a decent work environment, underlining the importance of strengthening the managerial and financial capabilities of cooperatives. Finally, the results highlight the role of public action in promoting decent work, suggesting that well-designed, integrated government support strategies are needed to maximize their positive impact.

This study thus contributes to the literature on decent work in cooperatives by providing an analysis of the factors influencing working conditions in the specific context of Moroccan cooperatives. However, it has limitations, such as its reliance on self-reported data and a geographical scope limited to Moroccan cooperatives, which could influence the generalizability of the results. Future research could extend this analysis to other geographical and sectorial contexts, examine the impact of specific interventions on decent work, and explore in detail the mechanisms by which education and vocational training influence working conditions in cooperatives. This research highlights the complexity of the factors determining decent work in Moroccan cooperatives and puts forward concrete avenues for public action and cooperative management. By tackling the challenges identified and taking “public action through the determinants”, it is possible to make significant progress in worker well-being and contribute to the Sustainable Development Goals by promoting inclusive and sustainable economic growth and ensuring decent work for all.