Empowering Women in Tech Innovation and Entrepreneurship: A Qualitative Approach

Abstract

Women’s participation and leadership in technology and entrepreneurship are crucial for advancing innovation and ensuring inclusive economic development. Despite progress in gender equality, women in tech face challenges like under-representation and systemic biases. This research delves into the multifaceted experiences of women in tech innovation and entrepreneurship, highlighting the barriers they face and the strategies they use to overcome them. This study used a qualitative, observational design with semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis to explore the experiences and perceptions of entrepreneurial women in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) field. It was possible to conclude that entrepreneurial women exhibit a strong sense of autonomy, competence, and leadership, enabling them to manage their ventures independently and effectively. Also, the success of entrepreneurial women is multifaceted, combining personal fulfilment, professional achievements, and financial stability, with positive feedback and recognition playing a key role. Building strong social and supportive relationships is vital for entrepreneurial women, providing a sense of belonging, community, and emotional support. In this context, to empower women in STEM and entrepreneurship, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) should promote entrepreneurship as a career path, provide practical and value-based education, and foster a work environment of trust, communication, and continuous learning.

1. Introduction

In the rapidly evolving landscape of technology and entrepreneurship, women’s participation and leadership are increasingly recognised as pivotal for driving innovation and fostering inclusive economic growth. Despite significant strides toward gender equality, women continue to face unique challenges in the tech industry, from under-representation to systemic biases.

The United Nations Report “Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: The Gender Snapshot 2023” [1] highlights that sex discrimination is the most prevalent form of discrimination globally, with women being twice as likely as men to experience it. Despite international commitments to uphold human rights without discrimination, various forms of discrimination persist worldwide. This underscores the necessity of measures to protect women and girls, ensuring they have equal access to rights, services, and opportunities, along with tailored social services and support programs to address their specific needs.

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) [2] calculated the Gender Equality Index for the European Union 2023, encompassing six domains as follows: work, money, knowledge, time, power, and health. The European Union (EU) has seen notable progress in the time domain, primarily due to a decrease in women’s unpaid care work, although men’s participation remains comparatively low. The health domain is closest to achieving gender equality but has seen a decline since 2010. The money domain, despite being the second highest, has shown signs of regression post-2020, likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on economic gender disparities. While some Member States are closing the gap with the EU average, others, like Czechia and Estonia, show slower progress and remain significantly below the EU average, widening the disparities in gender equality across the region.

Focusing on women’s status in education access and employment, significant disparities remain between men and women in various study areas and professional fields. Despite advancements in science, technology, and innovation, many countries still lack adequate digital infrastructure, which exacerbates discrimination against women and girls, particularly in rural and marginalised communities. According to global data from the United Nations Report—2023 [1], women are only half as likely as men to know a computer programming language, and female inventors were five times less common than their male counterparts in 2022. Additionally, in 2020, women held just one-third of the research positions and only one-fifth of the jobs in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields.

In the EU, efforts to address precarious work have included directives on transparent working conditions and work–life balance, as well as initiatives like the New Skills Agenda for Europe and the Gender Equality Strategy for 2020–2025. However, precarious work conditions, worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic, still disproportionately affect women, particularly those with caregiving responsibilities. Women researchers in EU Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are more likely to work part-time and under precarious contracts compared with men. While there has been some progress in increasing the representation of women among heads of HEIs and in leadership positions in Research and Innovation, these advancements have been slow and uneven across countries. Additionally, although the number of female doctoral graduates in Europe is increasing, horizontal gender segregation persists, with women overrepresented in education but under-represented in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), engineering, Manufacturing, Construction, and STEM fields. Despite these challenges, the EU continues to reinforce its commitment to gender equality through various programs supporting education, research, and innovation.

There is a significant gap between women’s and men’s achievements in entrepreneurship, indicating that women face many constraints in business performance. According to the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM report—2023) [3], globally, one in six women intend to start a business soon, compared with one in five men, with the highest intentions among women in low-income countries. In regions like Latin America, the Caribbean, the Middle East, and Africa, one in three women have entrepreneurial intentions. However, women are generally less represented in established businesses, with a significant gender gap in business ownership (W/M 0.68) compared with startup activity (W/M 0.80). Throughout the report, gender differences are expressed using W/M ratios. In this context, the gap is defined as the difference between the number of women (W) and the number of men (M), either below or above the level of parity (1.0). For instance, a W/M ratio of 0.68 signifies that there are 0.68 women for every 1.0 man. Women are more likely than men to start a business because of job scarcity and a desire to make a difference in the world, with higher education levels than men.

Despite significant strides toward gender equality, women continue to face unique challenges in the tech industry, particularly in terms of under-representation and systemic biases. Women are twice as likely as men to experience discrimination based on their gender [1]. Additionally, as stated previously, the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2023 [3] highlights that women remain under-represented in tech-driven entrepreneurial activities, with only one in six women intending to start a business compared with one in five men globally. These statistics underscore the persistent barriers women face in STEM entrepreneurship, including limited access to capital, networks, and mentorship opportunities, which inhibit their ability to thrive in this sector.

Entrepreneurial and innovative activities undertaken by both genders depend on the institutional context. The interaction between national-level institutions and attitudes toward female labour freedom influences female entrepreneurship [4].

In the EU, despite various initiatives to tackle precarious work and promote gender equality, challenges remain, particularly for women with caregiving responsibilities. Women researchers in EU Higher Education Institutions often work part-time and under precarious contracts. As stated previously, although the number of female doctoral graduates is increasing, horizontal gender segregation persists, causing women to be overrepresented in education but under-represented in STEM fields. Women entrepreneurs are more likely to be solopreneurs and less active in the ICT sector compared with men. However, they are highly active in sectors like the government, health, education, and social services. Women in lower- and middle-income countries are more likely to introduce innovative products and services. Despite only 1.5% of venture capital going to women-founded businesses in Europe, there has been an increase in funding for female-led companies, with new women-led funds and incubators emerging in 2023. Women entrepreneurs are also more likely to prioritise sustainability over economic goals and consider social and environmental impacts in their business decisions. However, they face higher business exit rates because of profitability issues, pandemic-related challenges, and family concerns.

Between 2015 and 2019, men predominated in research teams at both the European and national levels, with women being particularly under-represented in the fields of natural sciences, engineering, and technology. The changes implemented by the European Commission in Horizon Europe are justified, especially considering that only about 1.7% of all Horizon 2020 projects incorporated a gender perspective [5]. Additionally, from 2015 to 2018, women were significantly under-represented among inventors across Europe, with men submitting approximately ten inventions for every one submitted by a woman [5,6].

Since 2019, there has been a notable rise in organizational and financial initiatives across Europe aimed at supporting and promoting women’s involvement in innovation processes. Programs such as Horizon Europe and Women TechEU, along with efforts by the European Research Area, represent important steps toward enhancing women’s participation in both the scientific and business sectors to address present and future societal and technological challenges in Europe. The continued implementation of these programs, along with the increasing interest from women, demonstrates the effectiveness of these efforts in reducing gender disparities in European science and business [5,6].

The challenge is empowering female students with tech innovation and entrepreneurship competencies while also contributing to developing a supportive ecosystem in HEIs. Therefore, this initial study perfectly aligns with the priority of developing STEM in higher education, particularly women’s participation in STEM. Furthermore, this study addresses the horizontal priority “inclusion and diversity” because study factors such as gender stereotypes hold back women from pursuing business careers in the tech sector. This goal is aligned with the inclusion and diversity horizontal priority because the intention is to support female STEM students who already face obstacles, because of their gender, to enter a male-dominated industry (i.e., the tech industry).

In this context, this study explores the multifaceted experiences of women in tech innovation and entrepreneurship, employing a qualitative approach to uncover the nuanced barriers they encounter and the strategies they employ to overcome them.

Also, this study incorporates intersectional inclusiveness related to evidence highlighting that gender inequalities intersect with other social inequalities, such as ethnicity, (dis)ability, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, age, geographic location or migration background, and different cognitive and physical abilities, creating inseparable systems of disadvantage, which also reflect on women’s experiences in tech sectors [7].

Through in-depth interviews, we explore the personal and professional journeys of entrepreneurial women who are not only breaking barriers but also shaping the future of technology. By highlighting their stories and insights, this article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current landscape and offer actionable recommendations to further empower women in tech innovation and entrepreneurship.

Through this study, we intend to enhance education institutions by not only fostering an environment conducive to competence development within learning processes but also by pinpointing key features that are important in defining the profile of entrepreneurial women in the STEM area.

2. Materials and Methods

The use of a qualitative methodology allowed us to explore individual experiences and subjective perceptions in detail, ensuring a more comprehensive and contextualised approach to the phenomenon under study [8].

The method used for data collection was a semi-structured interview with a set of questions to characterise the participants and seven themes with open-ended questions (Appendix A) related to the development of their entrepreneurial skills. Through semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis, we were able to capture the complexity and richness of the participants’ narratives, providing a holistic and grounded view of the factors that influence self-determination and motivational behaviour. To develop this instrument, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) principles were followed.

Self-Determination Theory is a comprehensive framework for understanding human motivation and personality, emphasizing the importance of evolved inner resources for personality development and behavioural self-regulation [9], based on the belief that individuals are inherently inclined towards growth and self-improvement [10]. It emphasises the importance of satisfying three basic psychological needs—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—that are universal across age, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status. Autonomy is the feeling that one’s actions are one’s own choice, competence is the desire to engage effectively with one’s environment, and relatedness is the need to feel connected to others.

According to Ryan and Deci [11], SDT posits that individuals are naturally inclined to grow, overcome challenges, and integrate new experiences when supported by their environment. These developmental tendencies can be thwarted in unsupportive social contexts, leading to non-compliance and disengagement [12]. The three fundamental psychological needs—competence, autonomy, and relatedness—are essential for self-motivation and personality integration. Their fulfilment is essential for optimal health and effectiveness, while their lack leads to poor well-being and psychological disorders, regardless of age, gender, culture, or socioeconomic status [13,14]. The application of SDT in various social contexts, such as education, aims to identify the conditions that either promote or inhibit positive human potential, ultimately influencing learning, performance, and well-being. By understanding these dynamics, SDT provides a nuanced perspective on how to create supportive environments that foster personal growth and motivation [10].

SDT differentiates between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation arises from inherent interest and enjoyment in activities, whereas extrinsic motivation is driven by the pursuit of external outcomes [15]. Within SDT, Organismic Integration Theory (OIT) further categorises extrinsic motivation by its level of autonomy, from external regulation, where behaviour is driven by external demands, to integrated regulation, where individuals fully align their actions with personal values. Unlike intrinsic motivation, which is inherently autonomous and driven by personal interest, extrinsic motivations can become more self-determined as they are internalised, leading to greater autonomy in behaviour [11].

SDT’s relevance extends beyond theoretical understanding to practical applications across various domains, including education, work, and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs often face challenges that test their motivation and persistence, and SDT suggests that those who are autonomously motivated—driven by a sense of personal purpose—are more likely to overcome obstacles. This autonomous drive encourages innovation, risk-taking, and perseverance in building ventures that align with their personal values [10]. In addition, SDT’s need for relatedness highlights the importance of supportive networks for entrepreneurs, including mentors, partners, and customers, which can significantly enhance motivation and overall well-being. By understanding and fostering intrinsic motivation and autonomy, organisations and policymakers can create environments that promote entrepreneurial success and sustained engagement [10]. As concluded by Al-Jubari [16], in entrepreneurship, autonomously motivated individuals are more likely to innovate, take risks, and persist through challenges, driven by their personal vision and values.

SDT suggests that fostering environments that support intrinsic motivation and autonomy can enhance learning, performance, and well-being. Supportive environments created by leveraging SDT principles promote psychological well-being, social development, and sustained motivation, ultimately contributing to personal and professional success.

This study aims to investigate how self-determination factors—competence, autonomy, and relatedness—influence the entrepreneurial motivations and experiences of female entrepreneurs in STEM across different cultural contexts. It explores the experiences of women in technology and entrepreneurship within STEM, focusing on the barriers they face and the strategies they use to overcome them. The results of this study provide insights for Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to better support and empower women in these fields, promoting entrepreneurship as a viable career path.

More specifically, in the semi-structured interview script, in addition to questions characterizing the participants, the following questions were asked: (1) general background questions and questions regarding (2) autonomy; (3) competence; (4) relatedness; (5) balancing needs; (6) work or academic environment; and (7) coping with challenges.

The following questions in our interviews aimed to explore key aspects of female entrepreneurship in STEM: How do female entrepreneurs perceive their sense of autonomy throughout their journey? In what ways do feelings of competence influence their self-efficacy? Additionally, how do relationships and networks impact their motivation and persistence? Lastly, what challenges do they face in balancing intrinsic and extrinsic motivations? By addressing these areas, we sought to gain a comprehensive understanding of the experiences and perceptions of women in STEM entrepreneurship.

The next figure (Figure 1) presents the main objective questions and defines each basic psychological need according to the autonomy, competence, and relatedness structure to ensure a comprehensive and structured approach to understanding the motivations and experiences of female entrepreneurs.

The European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) [2] calculates the Gender Equality Index to measure gender equality in the European Union. As stated previously, the index is based on the following six core domains: work (labour market participation, employment rates, and the gender segregation in various economic sectors), money (gender pay gap and other indicators of economic independence, such as the poverty risk of working-age women and men), knowledge (educational attainment, participation in lifelong learning, and the gender gap in education fields), time (measures the distribution of unpaid work, such as caregiving and household chores, between women and men, as well as their participation in leisure activities), power (presence of women and men in decision-making positions in political, economic, and social spheres), and health (self-perceived health, mental well-being, prevalence of long-term health problems, and access to healthcare services and health-related behaviour). This index report characterises and describes the countries that belong to the European Union. From the countries considered in the population of the presented research, a convenient sample was chosen that represented a country with an index score above the EU average (Spain) and countries with an index below the EU average score both closely (Portugal and Italy) and more distantly (Poland and Greece). The sample was achieved by conducting a minimum of two interviews per country.

The qualitative methodology provided deep insights into the individual experiences and contextual factors influencing female entrepreneurs in STEM. Thus, choosing female entrepreneurs for interviews required a thoughtful and strategic approach to ensure a diverse and representative sample. We intended to include female entrepreneurs from various industries with different business stages, experience levels, education (primarily from STEM), and backgrounds who were from different countries (Portugal, Spain, Poland, Italy, and Greece).

Participants were contacted through professional networks, entrepreneurship organizations, and online platforms focused on women in STEM. The participants who met the inclusion criteria were contacted, invited to participate, and informed of the objectives of this study, the procedures to be followed, and ethical standards, including assurances of confidentiality regarding data collection, namely, the audio recording of the interview (no image recording). They were advised how the session would take place, that they would be asked questions by the researcher, and that they would have complete freedom to express their opinions. The interviews were conducted individually and took place during the month of March 2024, lasting an average of one hour each. All ethical standards were guaranteed, ensuring the confidentiality of the participants regarding data collection. The audio material was transcribed verbatim into Word documents totalling 209 pages (Times New Roman, font 12, spaces 1.5).

The material obtained was imported into the NVivo software programme [17]. Cases and attributes were created for each participant to characterise them and make it possible to consult their interviews individually.

Content analysis in qualitative research involves systematically examining textual, visual, or audio data to identify patterns, themes, and meanings [18]. Using NVivo software, researchers can efficiently manage, code, and analyse large volumes of qualitative data. NVivo allows for the organization of data into nodes (categories), the visualization of connections and patterns through various charts and models, and the extraction of meaningful insights through advanced querying capabilities [19]. This process aids in creating a structured and detailed understanding of complex qualitative data, enhancing the rigour and depth of the analysis.

Fourteen interviews were conducted in Portugal (four), Spain (four), Poland (four), Italy (four), and Greece (four).

Table 1. Interviewee profile.

Ni	Age	Nationality	Professional Career	Years of Experience	Academic Background
1	37–42	Spanish	Business Company Co-founder	6–10	Technology
2	43–48	Spanish	Researcher	>15	Technology
3	43–48	Spanish	Business Company Co-founder	1–5	Technology
4	37–42	Spanish	Lecture (educational innovation)	11–15	Technology
5	25–30	Hellenes	Business Company Co-founder	1–5	Balkan, Slavic, and Oriental studies (Economic, social, and political studies)
6	------	Hellenes	SEO Specialist	11–15	Technology
7	25–30	Italian	Business Company Co-founder	1–5	Technology (artificial intelligence)
8	37–42	Italian	Business Company Co-founder	---------	Law
9	------	Polish	Lecture and Researcher	---------	Biotechnology
10	49–54	Polish	Business Company Co-founder	---------	Business
11	49–54	Portuguese	Business Company Founder	>15	Economics/Business
12	31–36	Portuguese	Business Company Co-founder	6–10	Economics/Business
13	49–54	Portuguese	Business Company Co-founder	>15	Economics/Business
14	37–42	Portuguese	Business Company Founder	6–10	Arts

Note: N_i (i = 1 to 14) represents the interview number.

shows the participants who were contacted and met the inclusion criteria (to be women with professional activity in the STEM area and/or entrepreneurs).

Many of the interviewees were more than 43 years old and had more than 15 years of professional experience. Almost half were from the technology field, followed by the economics and business area. Most of the women interviewed were founders or cofounders of a business company, regardless of their fields of study.

The analysis procedures followed the stages of thematic analysis to identify, analyse, and report the themes that were deduced from the interview script and then from the themes and categories that emerged from the transcripts of the participants’ interventions in the open-ended responses [20,21]. The categorisation technique involved transforming the data to represent its content. To accomplish this, the following steps were carried out [22]:

• Full reading of the texts obtained from all the interviews;
• Initial categorisation of the Units of Meaning based on the questions in the script of all the interventions, naming them according to the terms used in this research, their purposes, and the researcher’s experience and knowledge;
• Reading by themes and categories, reviewing all the categorised material, reconfiguring the coding whenever necessary, and identifying the emergence of new categories or their elimination;
• Interpretation and writing up of the results by each theme and their respective substitutes. At this stage, and after “intimate familiarity” [23] with the content written by the participants, we tried to establish a sequential and coherent discourse of the issues addressed, highlighting the participants’ opinions and considerations.

3. Results

3.1. Self-Determination Theory

Regarding the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), it was possible to analyse how the interviewees interpreted their behaviours and enhance the main features to be considered to determine a more effective intrinsic motivation and, consequently, their behaviours.

3.1.1. Autonomy

Regarding the autonomy construct within the SDT, it was found four categories (decision-making, personal goals, supportive environments, autonomy vs. well-being) were subdivided into three, two, or only one category, as shown in Figure 2.

The subcategories are explained below.

• A1. Decision-making

This category is described as the ability to make choices and decisions on a personal and professional level. These decisions can be made in a pressure context or in situations that reveal constraints or limitations to the options. Therefore, resilience and flexibility seem to be key to the decision-making process.

In this category, it was possible to conclude that decision-making is a natural professional behaviour. Entrepreneurial women like to make decisions, which has never been a problem for them. Decisions and autonomy were natural in their profiles.

“…I have always felt good making decisions. It is not as a result of starting a company. Even yesterday, before, I like to make decisions, in my personal life, I am a person of action to make decisions, I feel good and I like it…” (N1)

“being autonomous in work means having my own company. …. We develop a sixth sense, a natural form of machine learning, …, but I make the decisions.” (N3).

“Almost every day, … I need to make such decisions, and ... there is always a sense of responsibility, with a large dose of security in the environment in which I move.” (N5).

“I have always had the sense of influence in decision-making…” (N9).

Also, for entrepreneurial women, making daily decisions is necessary, and they must follow a process.

“especially in the area of research…, because there are always many additional circumstances that have to be evaluated.” (N2).

“In my profession I often have the autonomy to make decisions about the strategies and tactics…; I feel fortunate to have a high level of autonomy in my daily activities…This sense of control makes me feel empowered and motivated…” (N6).

“…indeed, it’s the beautiful part. You’re free to chart a course and move towards that course!” (N8).

“…my decision is a conscious, relatively easy, but knowledgeable decision-making.” (N12).

Some restrictions or pressures on autonomy in decision-making were pointed out, such as the type of decision, the professional context, and the challenge of the unknown and uncertainty.

“The only complicated thing, I believe in decision-making is that they are not usually single decisions, that is, in my case of entrepreneurship, they are shared decisions.” (N1).

“because everyone has their strengths and weaknesses, in a group you have to know when you need to ask for help. This does not limit your autonomy, maybe it delays it, but in the end when you have to make the decision…”; “…with time and experience, you learn to manage everything even better.” (N5).

“I feel restricted or pressured in my decision-making, particularly when there are strict deadlines or client expectations to meet. This pressure can sometimes impact my motivation or engagement…”; “I strive to balance autonomy and relatedness by respecting individual boundaries and preferences…” (N6).

“…let’s say that I have always been a little afraid. Even though I have done many things, I have always been slightly anxious when I didn’t know how to do something well.” (N7).

“The Portuguese audience is very difficult, for me, it is one of the most difficult audiences.” (N14).

Age and being a woman were also highlighted as restrictions in decision-making.

“I have a lot of close friends who do startups, but they’re all guys. …Then, in reality, it is also due to the fact that, obviously, there is already a difference in numbers at the entrance. So, in any case, clearly, that also influences a lot.” (N7).

“…it was difficult to achieve, especially because of my age.” (N8).

“In the beginning, no one takes us seriously, because we are young and women.”; “Women are very insecure and are very afraid of failing their child, of failing the family part…and often they also have some pressure, family pressure.” (N13).

It was also possible to conclude that resilience and flexibility in decision-making empower entrepreneurial women to navigate challenges, adapt to changing environments, and drive sustainable success.

“You have to be a little realistic, not to go where it will allow you to have the resources to work, it does not mean that you have to give up what you love or like…” (N2).

“I have the flexibility to manage my time and prioritise tasks…” (N6).

“There are people who do not strive for complete autonomy but collaborate with others and consider their opinions, preferring a democratic management system. On the other hand, people with a high need for autonomy prefer to act independently”; “I value a democratic management system that fosters engagement.” (N10).

“…but he said it’s not with me, it’s Sonia’s area. But as we always separate very well things always work very well.” (N13).

• A2. Personal goals

In terms of autonomy, it was very important that individuals were able to set personal goals to be achieved in their personal and professional lives. So, the relationship between this ability and the sense of autonomy is important.

For personal goals vs. autonomy, we could conclude that there is a strong link between entrepreneurial women’s sense of autonomy and their achievement of personal goals, as self-directed efforts fuel motivation and drive their success.

“I assume if it’s good, bad, but I take my responsibility, so that level of autonomy and that level of freedom, I call it professional freedom, you know?”; “How autonomy brings me closer to my goals? It is very closed to the personal and the professional, you know. For me, this autonomy that my job gives me also allows me to lead the life I want.” (N1).

“I would like to see both my technical and personal skills develop, which will make me feel even more confident in the decisions I make and therefore in the sense of autonomy I feel.” (N5).

“Having more autonomy would enable me to explore new ideas and approaches…”; “I believe that having a sense of autonomy enables me to pursue these goals effectively by allowing me the freedom to innovate, take ownership of my work, and align my efforts with what I value most. Having a quality personal life too…” (N6).

“I said I want to be an entrepreneur when I was 15? No, absolutely not. …It’s something I discovered gradually…” (N7).

“…having a greater autonomy in the professional sphere can positively influence the achievement of personal goals”; “I have a clear vision of what I want to do, how I want to feel, and in what environment I want to be. This is a solid foundation for my daily decisions, actions, and creating medium and short-term plans.” (N10).

“We had to fight for our things and therefore realise that things did not appear from the sky. Okay. Now it’s time, I’m going to create my company! I’m going to write my way.” (N11).

• A3. Supportive environments

Living or working within a supportive environment was revealed to be important to the sense of autonomy. Different types of support were identified as giving the feeling of being supported, and the relationship between these types of environments and the sense of autonomy was revealed to be crucial.

In the entrepreneurial context, the most important autonomy-supportive environments included the following:

• Family Support—A supportive family environment that provides emotional encouragement, practical help, and understanding of the demands of entrepreneurship, enabling women to pursue their goals with greater confidence and autonomy.

“I certainly had extreme support at a family level… certainly the fact that they allowed me to do it and that they believed in me was the first step towards this.” (N7).

“But yes, my parents had a very big influence. My parents and, currently, my husband. … And that had, that’s back there, and it was very important later also in the determination with which I followed some paths and made some decisions, without a doubt.”; “I am a product of me, of what I do, of my choices and my context, of course, and our context for good and for bad is absolutely essential.” (N11).

“It’s obvious that if you’re upset about something banal, it’s important to have someone at home to vent to, family and friends.” (N12).

“They taught me good principles to be resourceful and autonomous. …That part goes a little bit from the education I had, now it’s a fact, that having my husband and partner, who was a technician in this area, was a great support.” (N13).

• Supportive Team Dynamics—A team culture that values each member’s input, encourages collaboration, and supports independent decision-making, fostering a sense of ownership and empowerment among entrepreneurial women.

“But always counting on the team… It is noticeable when there is that team culture... everyone feels accompanied in that I want to do...then today we Will help you as much as we can and there we go...” (N2).

“Sure, the team I‘m in right now is a shaky example. All together for one, as common as it sounds.” (N5).

“I have been fortunate to work in environments where my autonomy has been supported and encouraged. For example, employers in the past provided me with the resources, tools, and trust needed to independently manage projects and make decisions.” (N6).

“It’s more about the external context. So, we have to adapt to the new reality. So yes, I feel fortunate because we are a team.”; “One makes the decision, but the path to reach the final decision is beautiful.” (N8).

• Education Programs—Educational institutions and programs that emphasise experiential learning, critical thinking, and self-directed project work.

“…the issue of women who from a young age have mentally instilled in us that we are not so good at mathematics, that we are not so good at business. I think it is necessary to reinforce all these issues at the training level.” (N4).

• Professional Networks and Associations—Industry groups and networks that offer opportunities for connection, collaboration, and shared learning.

“…from the most important people, let’s say, in my research training or in my career. So, what that usually does is to motivate you to continue…They are the ones who always push you a little bit more.” (N2).

“I have some support networks and it’s important to have them…there are really difficult decisions and other things, I have some people to help me… Sometimes I can also have this kind of relationship with some clients.” (N12).

In many professional contexts, particularly within rigid hierarchical structures or environments lacking autonomy support, entrepreneurial women often feel their decision-making power and creativity stifled. This lack of stimulation and encouragement contrasts sharply with the autonomy and empowerment they experience when starting their own ventures, where they can independently drive their initiatives forward despite societal obstacles.

“...autonomy, decision-making, and freedom in the Spanish professional environment is conspicuous by its absence… When you start your own business, then you meet many people like you, that’s fine, but in general, that usually means that your environment is more of an obstacle. … in general, it’s not that you don’t feel supported. Rather, it’s that you don’t feel stimulated or driven, you know, you’re the one who has to pull it forward a little bit… but to say, this is my decision and I go ahead with it, okay?” (N1).

“…many times, you have to accept public opinion even if it means how within your own autonomy you would choose something different.” (N5).

“…I felt my autonomy was not fully supported, such as when I’ve encountered micromanagement or rigid hierarchical structures that limit creativity and innovation. In these situations, my engagement and motivation suffered as I felt less empowered to take initiative or exercise independent judgment.” (N6).

“…if a production engineer goes and goes Lucia, his message gets to the customer much faster than if it’s Lucia or Maria, whatever. …And there is still, especially in some older SME, ... but our feminine message takes longer to arrive. Arrives, but it takes longer.” (N11).

“It’s exactly the opportunity to be equal. It’s exactly the opportunity to be equal. Yes, because I don’t think that is a lack of capacity on the part of women. Because we have very good women, very good leaders.” (N13).

• A4. Autonomy versus well-being

Another category that arose from the interviews was a relationship between autonomy and a sense of well-being. The interviewees considered that they are linked, and it is crucial to achieve well-being in life.

The relationship between autonomy and well-being for entrepreneurial women is multifaceted, showing both positive and negative impacts. In summary, autonomy significantly impacts the well-being of entrepreneurial women, enhancing their job satisfaction, motivation, and overall life satisfaction. However, challenges such as risk aversion, family responsibilities, and the need for resilience can sometimes hinder this positive impact.

The following are examples of positive impacts:

• Work-Life Balance—“I think so many women are living in other types of jobs where work-life balance is impossible. My autonomy allows me to reconcile is hard, yes, but it allows me to reconcile.”; “So, right now, today, I have achieved that well-being and autonomy are associated and it has been positive.” (N1); “Autonomy as you grow older is a key factor that is often lacking .... personally, I will say that it is a key factor of well-being.” (N5).
• Job Satisfaction, Psychological Empowerment and Motivation and Stress Reduction—“Having a sense of autonomy positively impacts my overall well-being by enhancing my job satisfaction, sense of fulfilment, and psychological empowerment.”; “When I have a high level of autonomy in my work, I feel more motivated, satisfied, and less stressed. For example, when I have the freedom to innovate and experiment with different SEO strategies, I feel excited and energized by the creative process.” (N6).
• Foundation for a Dream Career—“Autonomy is the foundation upon which I have built my dream career, albeit not devoid of challenging moments-frustration or feeling of failure.” (N9).
• Increased Life Satisfaction—“A sense of autonomy has a significant impact on overall well-being.”; “Individuals who feel they have control over their lives and decisions generally have an increased feeling of well-being and are more satisfied with life.” (N10); “It’s fundamental. And I can give you countless examples.” (N11).

The following are examples of negative impacts:

• Resilience in the Face of Challenges—The lack of resilience can hinder progress and well-being.

“...if you are a person who falls down immediately, it’s hard not to move on.” (N7); “I had to give up many things. Yes, I had to give up many things. ... I can’t call it sacrifice. ... So, I would have liked to have more time... but these are choices that I was aware of.” (N8).

• Risk, Choices, Family Concerns, and Family Obligations—Women often have to make significant choices that impact their well-being, although these are often conscious choices.

“I had to give up many things. Yes, I had to give up many things. ... I can’t call it sacrifice. ... So, I would have liked to have more time... but these are choices that I was aware of.” (N8); “…there are many women who are also afraid to take risks and then there is the family issue.”; “Women are very insecure and are very afraid of failing their child, of failing the family part” (N13); “I had a family situation where I didn’t allow myself to say that I wasn’t going to make it.” (N14).

3.1.2. Competence

Regarding the competence construct within the SDT, four categories (competence evaluation; achievement and success; feedback and recognition; and intrinsic motivation and mastery) were subdivided into three or only one category, as shown in Figure 3.

The subcategories are explained below.

• C1. Competence evaluation

This category is described as the need to assess and feel competent as a professional, the consideration of the factors that lead to feeling competent, and, in contrast, the lack of competence that can still be felt in situations.

In this category, it was possible to draw conclusions about the feeling and assessment of competence. Entrepreneurial women often exhibit a strong sense of autonomy, competence, and leadership, enabling them to manage their ventures independently and effectively.

“I think that autonomy and competence interact in a very clear way. You know, I mean, autonomy gives you competencies, competences give you autonomy. I think they are circular, you know, I mean, I think they feedback on each other…” (N1).

“In terms of leadership, I always have been. …. Leadership may have been born with me, but it was also a lot of work. I was a Girl Scout from a very young age and in the Boy Scouts, I was always a leader” (N12).

They demonstrate levels of confidence, which fuels their ability to take on responsibilities. Responsibility and confidence play a crucial role, as these women are often responsible for making significant decisions and steering their businesses toward success.

“We have worked very hard to achieve a project, and the project does not turn out well. And if you have put a lot of time and effort into getting it, well, indeed, the satisfaction you can feel …”; “I managed to organise my thinking without stress and finish my work in the time I could”; “ …if you want to have a start-up or in any case go into the world of entrepreneurship, one thing that is certainly fundamental is that you are stimulated by having responsibilities and in any case learning to manage it” (N2, N5, N7).

They continuously strive to overcome limits, pushing beyond conventional boundaries to achieve their goals (“If the company philosophy or the company environment leads you to overcome your limits, to recognise your limits and overcome them, in my opinion, they can then develop” (N8)).

Skills such as adaption and critical thinking are essential for entrepreneurial women. They must adapt to rapidly changing market conditions and think critically to solve complex problems. This ongoing assessment ensures they remain competitive and relevant in their fields (“… maybe I’m critical, but that’s also a good thing because then it stimulates you to improve” (N7)).

Many entrepreneurial women perceive themselves as confident and competent, ready to manage changes, plan strategically, and launch new initiatives.

“I assess my competence in my daily activities by monitoring key performance indicators (…) continually strive to improve my skills and knowledge through ongoing learning and professional development” (N6).

“I think that autonomy and competence interact in a very clear way. You know, I mean, autonomy gives you competencies, competencies give you autonomy (…) I am capable of managing changes, of planning, of launching myself to do things” (N1).

They see themselves as capable of balancing professional and personal life, which is essential for long-term success. They also accept others’ views and engage in learning and continuous growth.

“The key is that I rarely get blocked in my professional life. And in my personal life, if I get blocked, it’s something very serious, you know very, very serious that I’m not able to cope with. For me, it’s the biggest competition.” (N1, N11)

“I recognise that there’s always room for growth and improvement, especially in emerging areas of SEO and digital marketing. In personal relationships, I continually work on enhancing my communication skills and deepening connections with others”; “I’m technical, but surely I have other capabilities that maybe even surpass those technical ones in some ways. So, I’ll probably focus more and more on those, even though I don’t want to lose what I’ve learned. I’m interested, I really like the world of artificial intelligence”; “sometimes we only realised later the impact that it had, but above all studying and accepting the other, individually and then collectively”; “I went to do the advanced Management program at Católica, and it was enriching, listening to new inputs, giving us new ideas. Talking to people, and that’s what I needed because I had more than 20 years without training, and then I decided to do a master’s degree”. (N6, N7, N11, N13).

It was also possible to identify the following factors that influence competence:

• The willingness to assume risks and trust their instincts is vital for making bold decisions.

“What we all entrepreneurs need is money, economic aid, financing, or tax reduction, or don’t charge me more or give me something. To allow us to be sustainable and to take risks. Because if we don’t take those risks, achievements are very difficult, right?” (N3).

• Learning is another crucial factor, as continuous education and skill development keep them ahead of industry trends.

“This updating process requires a lot of personal autonomy, fairly strong competence in learning to learn, and, yes, above all, knowing how to search for information properly and knowing which are the most important profiles that I should follow to enrich myself” (N4).

• The ability to engage in problem-solving and possess resilience, self-confidence, and determination ensures they can navigate obstacles and persevere through tough times.

“As for my strong points, I have, let’s say, a strong ability in problem-solving, in problem-solving techniques, therefore in team creation, brainstorming, and in managing the workgroup” (N8).

“Resilience is indeed one of the words that is very fashionable, but in fact, being resilient is one of the keys. If I believe with conviction or more or less in what I am saying, but above all if I know about the subject” (N11).

Despite their strengths, entrepreneurial women sometimes face challenges related to underestimating themselves and recognising their own talents (sense of a lack of competence).

“I feel that I lack competencies, a little bit, as I mentioned at the beginning, is in the identification of talent”; “It’s true that we sometimes underestimate ourselves, we have the impostor syndrome for some reason”; “it makes you think, am I good? Am I doing the work for myself? It affects you negatively” (N1, N4, N5).

This can hinder their progress and affect their confidence. Moreover, gaps in management knowledge can pose difficulties in effectively running their businesses.

“I realised that I needed solid theoretical and practical foundations in management. That is why I decided to participate in a year-long management course, which proved to be of great value to me. It allowed me to understand management better while applying new skills in practice” (N9).

• C2. Achievement and success

The sense of competence is linked to a sense of achievement and success, and this depends on several factors and success considerations.

The success of entrepreneurial women is multifaceted, combining personal fulfilment, professional achievements, and financial stability.

“For me the success is to achieve the goal set and the feeling of satisfaction with the work done, but this is not just about me; it’s also about the well-being of the whole team. When talking about motivation, we cannot ignore the element of financial reward. This last aspect is rarely discussed by women, and in my opinion, it is extremely important because it determines our financial stability—both currently and in the future.…” (N9).

Their journey is marked by recognition (awards), confidence, competence, and power. Autonomy is also an example of a success factor.

“… I will give you another one example, another one that, for me, is key in which we were very successful. It is in the management of entrepreneurship awards. They are very useful. For starters, you know, I think it’s a very important thing to do, the typical Woman of I don’t know what from such and such magazine, my partner and I received 2 awards” (N1).

“You will have little autonomy because you would be at the orders of other people who send you to do things at the level at which you are. I would balance everything.” (N4).

“You build on the successes, a bell rings and says, look...you might have it after all! That’s what happens with my successes, and as time goes by and they accumulate, I feel more confident about what I’m doing.” (N5)

“It also enhances my sense of job satisfaction and well-being by affirming my value as a skilled professional and reinforcing my sense of purpose and fulfilment in my chosen career path.” (N6).

“I believe in my work, I believe in the healing power that it can have on me and on others, and I already have proof of that, proof of people who sometimes go to the store where my work is, and I had a very funny situation.” (N14).

For entrepreneurial women, success means achieving a state of realisation where personal and professional aspirations are met.

“You build on the successes, a bell rings and says, look, you might have it after all! That’s what happens with my successes, and as time goes by and they accumulate, I feel more confident about what I’m doing.…” (N5).

Again, they refer to the fact that true success encompasses professional accomplishments, personal well-being, and a balanced life.

“It also enhances my sense of job satisfaction and well-being by affirming my value as a skilled professional and reinforcing my sense of purpose and fulfilment in my chosen career path” (N6).

“For me, success is to achieve the goal set and the feeling of satisfaction with the work done, but this is not just about me; it’s also about the well-being of the whole team.…” (N9).

• C3. Feedback and recognition

The competence construct identified the need for feedback and recognition in life and work as very important.

The journey towards success for entrepreneurial women is multifaceted, integrating various key characteristics that can propel their businesses forward. Among these, the importance of recognition and feedback cannot be overstated.

Recognition and revalidation are fundamental needs for both entrepreneurs and their teams.

“…You know, personally, I am a person who needs a lot of recognition between quotation marks, I mean, I need to be revalidated, you know, but I think it is something very personal” (N1).

Positive feedback is a powerful tool for growth and improvement and helps in refining processes, products, and services, making businesses more competitive and resilient. Positive feedback plays a significant role in building confidence.

“For me it is very important that my work is recognised, it motivates me to continue, it calms my anxiety.…” (N5).

“It boosts my motivation and confidence by validating my efforts and reinforcing my sense of competence and value as a professional. When others acknowledge my expertise and contributions, it serves as positive reinforcement that motivates me to continue striving for excellence and fuels my drive to achieve even greater success in my endeavours.” (N6).

“This is very important to me, although the group of people whose opinions matter to me is relatively small: my team, my bosses, my husband, and close family members. As long as I receive positive feedback from them, I have the motivation and self-assurance I need to act” (N9).

• C4. Intrinsic motivation and mastery

The interviewees identified mastering knowledge or tools and boosting motivation in terms of competence as important.

For an entrepreneurial woman, success is driven by a blend of internal motivations and strategic mindsets, such as intrinsic motivations, the pursuit of mastery, and confidence. These characteristics drive personal development and inspire teams to strive for excellence and innovation.

Confidence is the belief in abilities to achieve goals and overcome challenges; confidence empowers one to take risks and decisive actions.

“When you like what you do, you are more motivated to learn, so even if you are not perfect, you want to learn and feel competent (…) I feel more confident in what I do when it is confirmed by a third party” (N5).

“When I feel competent in activities I enjoy, it enhances my intrinsic motivation by fostering a sense of mastery, autonomy, and personal satisfaction. I feel more engaged, energised, and enthusiastic about the task at hand, and I’m driven to challenge myself and push the boundaries of what I can achieve. The sense of competence also fuels my passion for continuous learning and improvement, as I’m motivated to refine my skills and pursue excellence in my chosen pursuits” (N6).

3.1.3. Relatedness

Regarding the relatedness construct within SDT, three categories (relationships, inclusion and belonging, teamwork and collaboration), and only one of them was subdivided into two subcategories, as shown in Figure 4.

The subcategories are explained below.

• R1. Relationships

Establishing relationships appeared to be vitally important in relatedness. Social and supportive relationships were identified as key to this construct.

Regarding social relationships, building and maintaining connections with others is a crucial aspect of business. This encompasses various elements such as relationships, relatedness, knowledge exchange, and creating an active ecosystem.

Connections with others are vital for personal and professional growth. These connections provide support, camaraderie, and a sense of belonging, which are essential for navigating the challenges of entrepreneurship. To cultivate relationships, being extroverted and actively engaging with others is essential.

“What’s wonderful, collective or cooperative intelligence, that total cooperation, for example, the network we have of Tec women and allies that we share information and quickly, if we need certain contacts, we exchange them to help us keep growing. And that’s the key: to create an ecosystem and be within a fully active ecosystem.” (N4).

Belonging to a community or team significantly impacts their motivation and overall well-being.

“You can’t feel like you belong somewhere if those relationships don’t exist. Man needs other people, on whatever level that may be. I am lucky enough to have found both in common faces.” (N5).

“I received support from my colleagues during a particularly stressful period at work when we were facing tight deadlines and high-pressure client expectations. Their willingness to pitch in, offer assistance, and provide words of encouragement helped alleviate my stress and reinforced our sense of teamwork and mutual support, strengthening our bond as a cohesive unit.” (N6).

A lack of connections can lead to feelings of isolation, lowered self-esteem, and even depression.

“In the context of women, who are often considered more empathetic and inclined to build deep interpersonal relationships, social support is particularly important. It can help not only in overcoming daily difficulties but also in coping with major life crises. (…) Genuine connections with other people are the foundation on which we can build our resilience and emotional health.” (N10).

Building strong connections involves active listening, empathy, and offering emotional support. Recognition and gratitude are also valued and appreciated feelings.

“My social relationships contribute significantly to my overall sense of relatedness by providing support, camaraderie, and a sense of belonging. Whether it’s sharing ideas with colleagues, spending time with friends and family, or networking within professional circles, these connections enrich my life and foster a sense of connection and community.” (N6).

Participating in entrepreneurial forums and events allows them to interact with other entrepreneurs, exchange knowledge, and streamline processes.

“An entrepreneurship forum is different from a forum of another sector, where everything is as if everything is more scheduled and more established, it seems that each one is going to give her presentation (…) You know, on the contrary, you have to be reaffirming yourself, my partner and I have reaffirmed ourselves in many forums.” (N1).

“you’re in as an entrepreneur, there are times when you’re going to need to rely on the network for certain things.” (N3).

Supportive personal or professional relationships are crucial during challenges or difficulties. They reinforce a sense of teamwork and mutual support, strengthening the bond as a cohesive unit. Collaborating and/or attending forums or networks and engaging in social initiatives are excellent ways to build supportive relationships.

“We used a lot of support from mentors, from social initiatives of free mentors from the sector that gives mentors to retired people, thyme foundation, which I had.” (N1)

“If I were to act in isolation, I would lose motivation. Therefore, not only do I strive to collaborate with representatives of our university, but I also work in collaboration with foreign scientific units.” (N9).

“Whenever there are sectoral meetings, for example, I’m usually the only woman and with an active voice, and that’s it, I deal with it well.” (N13).

So, cultivating the right environment and corporate philosophy is essential for fostering supportive relationships.

“I found myself in what was the policy, the corporate philosophy because there was care, there was a lot of attention to the employee.” (N8).

• R2. Inclusion and Belonging

Feeling included and belonging to a network are consequences of the need for relatedness.

Inclusion and belonging are integral to creating a supportive and thriving work environment. An entrepreneur can build a cohesive and motivated team by promoting equal opportunities, fostering open communication, and valuing diversity. Genuine connections and a sense of community are the foundation upon which resilience and emotional health are built, ultimately leading to greater success. Feeling included means being recognised, valued, and counted as an integral part of the group.

“it is very important to feel connected and to feel at ease with the place first and with the people (…) had a very, very strong bond at the level of belonging. As you say, that sense of belonging. That is to internalise the group feeling.” (N2)

“Having been in many groups, the feeling of belonging is very important to me. I don’t want to feel left out. So being in spaces, physical or digital, where I feel counted means a lot to me.” (N5).

Providing equal opportunities for all team members is fundamental to fostering an inclusive environment.

“We don’t recruit by gender here, in production there are more men, but if I put up an ad I don’t see a woman either, due to the type of work. But here we have equal opportunities and then I don’t feel, I don’t feel that difference.” (N13).

The power of collective action and empathy grows when everyone feels included and valued. Inclusion leaders set an example by promoting diversity and acceptance, fostering an environment where all employees feel safe and respected.

“Working in such a positively oriented team and the opportunity to contribute to a real change in the lives of others are highly motivating and inspiring experiences. Thanks to this type of social interaction, not only does my well-being improve, but also my belief in the power of collective action and empathy grows. It reminds me that even small actions can have a big impact and affect the well-being of entire communities.” (N10).

• R3. Teamwork and Collaboration

Working in teams and being collaborative is fundamental within work and life to be able to fulfil the need for relatedness.

Regular informal meetings help team members get to know each other beyond professional interactions. This can strengthen personal connections and create a more cohesive team.

“So I see socialisation as key. I used to tell my friends about my idea of entrepreneurship until I was bored. I want to go around the world to see who could help me.” (N1).

“Some activities that we can give as an example, well, to have periodic informal meetings, that is, that are not the typical company meetings and that are controlled, not meetings in which you can talk. You can discuss certain work-related topics. Because in the end, if you meet with people from work, you are always talking about work, but you can talk about many other things as well.” (N2).

Team Building and development can also enhance teamwork.

“What I see as very positive are some strategies that are for team building, and for general team development that can be informal or formal.” (N4).

Developing relationships with business partners can enhance confidence and lead to more successful collaborations. Clear and open communication is also the backbone of successful teamwork.

“I know that you can’t achieve much by yourself, being able to lean on and feel part of a team is very important in the professional industry. That’s how I feel too. The relationship I have with my partners makes me feel confident (…) Understanding and Respect. And of course, communication also helps, at the level I have set for each one.” (N5).

Collaborating with others enhances the sense of relatedness by fostering a shared purpose, mutual support, and camaraderie. Working together towards common goals allows them to connect with and achieve common goals.

“Collaborating with others in my work enhances my sense of relatedness by fostering a shared sense of purpose, mutual support, and camaraderie. Working together towards common goals allows me to connect with, collaborating with others (relatedness) to achieve a common goal can enhance feelings of competence and autonomy as we contribute our skills and expertise towards the shared objective colleagues on a deeper level, build trust and rapport, and feel part of a cohesive team.” (N6).

3.2. HEI Strategies for Improvement

The interviews also produced some guidelines for improvement within education institutions as a work environment for competence development within the learning processes. It was also possible to pinpoint some key features that are important in defining the profile of entrepreneurial women in the STEM area.

As stated by the interviewees, the HEI strategies included orientations that reflected the profile definition of future women entrepreneurs or professionals in the STEM area.

In this context, it was crucial that the HEI environment (see Figure 5) fostered the following:

• A culture of trust and open communication:

“…enable initiatives, opportunities for learning and offer an environment that is safe to feel part of…” (N5).

“…fostering a culture of trust, open communication, and collaboration would empower me to take ownership of my work and contribute meaningfully to organisational goals. (N6).

“…The most important thing, and then also to encourage there to be more open, free talks so that, in general, anyone can approach” (N4).

• Collaboration:

“…the base is that of relationships because everything else is articulated through it… Normally, through these relationships, you expand your competencies, both in the business world and the world of academia… if they are integrated into that network, they will be able to contribute much more value, also in general, with those social relationships, we are going to feed the rest of the dimensions…”; “…it is also interesting to cultivate, not between people, that kind of relationships …usually more collaborative or egalitarian” (N2).

• Responsibility of power:

“…about the responsibility of power, but that there is diversity and, above all, that there are variations, that it is not one person because, in the case of universities in general, it happens many times that the positions seem to be eternal…” (N2).

The interviewees highlighted the following fundamental competencies that HEIs should develop:

• Proactive, not reactive:

“I usually approach challenges by identifying options and making decisions that align with my values and goals. Often, I seek to understand the factors within their control and take proactive steps to address the situation on my terms” (N5).

2.

Ability to change/flexibility:

“…because the tool will be obsolete in a few years, you know, but I have the ability now to know that I have to learn a tool every year. That’s the difference… when you have resistance to resistance, to change, you know…” (N1)

“Our teaching is standardised, and we all have to be equal, and we are not all the same!” (N13).

“… dealing with professional difficulties requires a flexible approach and adaptability because different situations require different strategies…” (N10).

3.

Self-Confidence:

“… women’s earnings are often lower simply because they do not ask for a raise. I also try to encourage or even “challenge” women to speak up as often as possible. Unfortunately, it often intimidates them… “ being in the spotlight” would be embarrassing, and they prefer to “hide”…” (N9).

“…you have to be prepared to talk and be confident…” (N12).

4.

Values and attitudes:

“… educational institutions are facilitators … because there are people and there are in fact, as we know, people who have a lot in their little heads, births who have sown a certain type of values and then they can no longer get out of there….” (N11).

5.

Communication:

“…you can work on soft skills as communication, ease…” (N12).

6.

Practical learning:

“I am very much in favour of practical teaching, practical teaching and articulation with companies.” “Schools have to adapt to our business fabric.” (N13).

7.

Critical thinking, innovation, creativity, and benchmarking:

“…it is a question of encouraging critical thinking, innovation, creativity, looking for ideas, what I am telling you. It is not necessary to reinvent the wheel, but to know how to copy, to know that it is in another world in other countries.” (N1).

“…you don’t appeal to the creativity of the kids, you don’t appeal to the critical sense, to the sense of having an opinion. They have no opinion. And this is soon a basic problem and that is always reflected throughout…” (N13).

8.

Entrepreneurship as a transversal learning:

“…And I think there is still a lot missing as if in universities it seems that all this is from … business administration. But why isn’t it transversal? Or do you have to study this business administration career to be able to be an entrepreneur? That’s crazy.” (N4).

4. Discussion

The qualitative analysis yielded highly insightful results, highlighting the primary concerns, learning practices, and experiences that could be fostered to enhance the entrepreneurial potential of female students in STEM fields.

The findings strongly suggest that autonomy is a critical factor for women in tech entrepreneurship, as it allows them to control their professional journeys, make strategic decisions, and innovate freely. The interviewees frequently highlighted that autonomy in decision-making is not just desirable but essential for their sense of empowerment and professional growth. For example, N1 noted, “I have always felt good making decisions. Autonomy isn’t just about my business—it’s who I am”. This illustrates that for these women, autonomy is not merely a professional attribute but a deeply ingrained personal characteristic. However, many participants noted that maintaining this autonomy often came with challenges, particularly in environments where gender biases persisted. Many interviewees, such as N7 pointed out that “In the beginning, no one took me seriously because I was both young and a woman” and credited their family support and professional relationships as critical to their success, especially in the early stages of their ventures. This highlights the need for supportive environments that respect and nurture women’s decision-making autonomy in male-dominated sectors like technology. Another key finding of this study is the importance of supportive environments—especially family, mentors, and professional networks—in overcoming the structural and social barriers faced by women in STEM fields.

This conclusion aligns with SDT, which posits that autonomy is one of the three basic psychological needs necessary for optimal functioning and personal growth. In entrepreneurship, autonomy empowers individuals to take risks, persist through challenges, and remain motivated by personal goals rather than external pressures. Environments that support autonomy encourage individuals to develop self-regulation and drive innovation [11]. This directly correlates with the experiences of the women in this study who emphasized that autonomy is crucial in navigating their careers.

This finding echoes the conclusions drawn in the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) 2023 Report [3], which notes that women entrepreneurs, particularly in STEM, often rely on robust support networks to overcome the disadvantages posed by gender biases and under-representation. Additionally, studies have shown that women in STEM entrepreneurship face unique challenges, such as fewer role models, limited access to funding, and gendered expectations, making support systems even more essential. Professional networks and mentorship programs have been identified as key to mitigating these challenges by providing women with access to resources, knowledge, and emotional support.

The women interviewed consistently highlighted the need for competence—both in their technical fields and in business skills—as a foundation for success in entrepreneurship. Several participants mentioned that their confidence stemmed from their competence, which in turn fuelled their motivation to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. For example, N6 said, “When I feel competent, I am more motivated to push boundaries and innovate”. The interviewees consistently mentioned the need for continuous learning and adaptability in the fast-evolving tech industry. For example, N6 shared that “In SEO, things change fast. I stay competitive by learning something new every day”.

This finding aligns with SDT’s principle of competence, which suggests that feeling competent enhances intrinsic motivation and self-determination, and emphasises the importance of competence as a motivator. Continuous skill development not only enhanced their competence but also increased their autonomy in decision-making. However, some participants reported challenges with “imposter syndrome” and self-doubt. N4 reflected that “Sometimes I underestimate myself, wondering if I’m truly capable”, highlighting the psychological barriers women face in male-dominated fields. According to Deci and Ryan [14], competence is crucial for sustained engagement in any activity, particularly in complex fields such as STEM entrepreneurship. Research by Steele [24] further supports the idea that competence in both technical and managerial skills boost entrepreneurs’ confidence, enabling them to take calculated risks, innovate, and successfully scale their businesses.

The interviewees noted that decision-making autonomy, competence, and supportive environments were essential for their entrepreneurial success. Support systems such as family and professional networks were vital in sustaining motivation, as presented in

Table 2. Key findings on autonomy, competence, and supportive environments.

Theme	Key Findings	Example/Quote
Autonomy in Decision-Making	Entrepreneurial women felt empowered by their ability to make independent decisions but often faced societal constraints.	“I’ve always felt autonomous, but it took time for others to respect that, especially in tech”—N1
Competence and Mastery	Women reported continually developing their skills to remain competitive, often feeling pressured to outperform in male-dominated fields.	“Competence gives me autonomy, and vice versa. Without competence, I would not feel in control”—N6
Supportive Networks	Family and professional networks played critical roles in helping women navigate challenges, with family support being particularly crucial in the early stages.	“I wouldn’t have made it without the support of my family—emotionally and practically”—N7

.

The interviewees shared their experiences and generously provided guidelines for HEIs to improve their learning and teaching processes, as well as their work environments. These guidelines pave the way for more gender-inclusive education, bolster the intrinsic motivation of female students, and, consequently, empower their professional trajectories in STEM and entrepreneurship.

The HEI strategies, as reflected in the interviewees’ feedback, outlined the profile definition of future women entrepreneurs or professionals in STEM. Summarising their input, the interviewees emphasised that entrepreneurship should be recognised as a viable career path and underscored the importance of education in real-world contexts and the cultivation of strong values (

Table 3. Opportunities, practices and values.

1.Entrepreneurship as a professional opportunity.

“…. entrepreneurship is a professional opportunity, but we also have to be…professionals…It is feasible…what are the premises?” (N1).

2.Practice development.

“…to give children a taste of autonomy even in the simplest things, autonomy is a skill that needs practice.” (N5). “Of course, spaces for expression, events, youth programs. All can help the autonomy of citizens.” (N5).

3.Values.

“…I usually approach challenges by identifying options and making decisions that align with my values and goals. Often, I seek to understand the factors within their control and take proactive steps to address the situation on my terms…” (N6).

):

They stated the key features that should be promoted and taught in terms of the work environment and the importance of promoting a supportive context, informal and available (

Table 4. Global work environment and supportive context.

Global Work Environment

1. Space to think/reflect. “…encourage employees to spend 20% of their working time on side projects that could benefit the company while stimulating autonomous thinking and action by employees” (N9). 2. Interpersonal relationships. “…to know how to ask each one how to ask them what to do to get them to do it, you know, because not everybody reacts the same, you know?” (N1). “My approach to interpersonal problems always starts with an open and honest conversation with the people involved. I try to use constructive feedback, avoiding judgment or blame and instead to focus on facts and my own feelings.” (N10). “…empathy, which allows understanding the position of other people, perseverance in pursuing the goal despite obstacles, patience as it allows to maintain calm even in stressful circumstances, calmness enabling rational thinking and decision-making, and curiosity, which encourages searching for new solutions and perspectives. These traits can significantly support the process of dealing with difficulties and lead to more efficient problem-solving.” (N10). 3. Culture of trust, empowerment, and accountability. “Organisations can better support individuals’ autonomy needs by promoting a culture of empowerment, trust, and accountability. This includes providing employees with the autonomy to make decisions, take calculated risks, and learn from their experiences.” (N6). “…promoting a culture of trust and responsibility. This means encouraging employees to make decisions independently and respecting their unique work methods.” (N9).

Support

1. Resources for personal development. “…more opportunities for professional development and skill-building, as well as greater flexibility in how I manage my time and prioritise tasks…” (N6). “…organisations can offer opportunities for professional growth and development, recognise and reward initiative and innovation, and foster a supportive work environment where individuals feel valued, respected, and empowered to contribute their best work. “(N6). “…resources necessary for personal and professional development, such as training, mentoring, or coaching programs” (N9). 2. Informal mentoring and working within a network. “What works, is, setting up mentoring systems …What does exist and does work is informal mentoring, that is to say, you have referents whom you trust 100 per cent and …” (N2) “We need to talk about associationism and support networks. We are here precisely to improve the life of the whole group, not of a single person… to give support, to give support to each other, but within an environment of trust, loyalty, tranquillity…” (N2) “Sometimes when I have doubts, I turn to this network that was very important at the time of COVID… We had the necessary support to test the employees and take the necessary measures.” (N12).

), within trust and communication. They also stated that it is necessary to be able to learn new skills continuously.

Building trust in social relationships could be particularly difficult. If social relationships felt more challenging because the women did not trust their approaches, seeking coaching and training could be immensely beneficial.

The entrepreneurs often pushed themselves excessively, sometimes without clear reasons. Frequent communication and engaging in shared activities such as hobbies were identified as ways to strengthen social relationships.

“I believe that coaching is very important, and then it is all I mentioned before at a training level at an operational level of all these areas that are not feminised, in quotation marks. It would be a bit towards where I would attack the level of training and improvement.” (N4).

“Frequent communication, going out, shared hobbies.” (N5).

New skills and technical skills were also mentioned as important knowledge. For an entrepreneur woman aiming to excel in business endeavours, it was crucial to focus on several key characteristics that could drive success. They stated that effective talent management involves identifying, developing, and retaining the best people for a business. A solid business plan is essential for setting the direction and framework of a business.

The interviewees referred to the importance of learning new skills. They stated that adopting a mindset of continuous learning was crucial for staying competitive. In addition, having a growth-oriented mindset was a way to improve and expand a business.

“I have to sit down, and I have to start learning how this works, how do I manage it or how can I bring it to a good end, in terms of technical issues, but it can happen in any area.” (N2).

“It’s stressful, especially in the marketing industry where so much is changing so fast. But you focus on the things that really interest you, and you learn as much as you can about it.” (N5).

“Certainly, technical skills precisely on the process, they certainly helped me because they allowed me, let’s say, to have a vision, and to be quicker in decisions. In managing the crisis, different skills must be combined, that of data analysis rather than succeeding.” (N8).

“Similarly, when I started working in the Netherlands, my level of Dutch was far from perfect. Despite the initial fear, taking a job in a commercial position turned out to be an excellent decision that significantly accelerated my professional development and that of my language skills.” (N10).

“We are in an industry, automotive, where everything is undergoing extreme changes, from electric to mechanical, from buttons to touchscreens.” (N8).

“…When I need to acquire new skills or knowledge, I approach it with a proactive and growth-oriented mindset. I seek out relevant resources such as online courses, tutorials, and workshops, and I dedicate time to self-study and practice. I also leverage opportunities for hands-on experience and mentorship, and I’m not afraid to ask questions or seek guidance from more experienced professionals.” (N6).

This study’s results indicate that HEIs need to implement gender-sensitive training that promotes entrepreneurship as a viable career path for women in STEM. Several interviewees highlighted the lack of entrepreneurship training tailored to women and the need for HEIs to foster environments that support autonomy, competence, and relatedness. For instance, N13 emphasised the need for practical, entrepreneurship-focused education in addition to STEM coursework.

This finding is consistent with research from the European Institute for Gender Equality [2], which points out that gender biases in education, particularly in STEM, limit women’s access to entrepreneurial opportunities. A gender-sensitive approach would involve integrating entrepreneurship education into STEM curricula, providing women with both technical and business skills, and addressing societal barriers through mentorship programs. Furthermore, studies have shown that such training not only equips women with the skills they need to start businesses but also instils the confidence to overcome structural barriers.

5. Conclusions

Empowering female students with technological innovation and entrepreneurial competencies, while simultaneously contributing to a supportive ecosystem within Higher Education Institutions, is a significant challenge. This study aligns perfectly with the priority of developing STEM in higher education, particularly by promoting women’s participation in STEM. It also addresses the horizontal priority of inclusion and diversity by examining factors such as gender stereotypes that hinder women from pursuing business careers in the tech sector. This goal supports female STEM students who already face gender-based obstacles in entering a male-dominated industry like the tech sector.

This study delves into the multifaceted experiences of women in tech innovation and entrepreneurship, employing a qualitative approach to uncover the nuanced barriers they encounter and the strategies they employ to overcome them. This study also incorporates intersectional inclusiveness, highlighting that gender inequalities intersect with other social inequalities such as ethnicity, (dis)ability, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, age, geographic location, or migration background, creating inseparable systems of disadvantage that also reflect women’s experiences in tech sectors.

Through in-depth interviews, we explored the personal and professional journeys of entrepreneurial women who are not only breaking barriers but are also shaping the future of technology. By highlighting their stories and insights, this article aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current landscape and offer actionable recommendations to further empower women in tech innovation and entrepreneurship.

The qualitative analysis yielded highly insightful results, highlighting the primary concerns, learning practices, and experiences that could be fostered to enhance the entrepreneurial potential of female students in STEM fields. In sharing their experiences, the interviewees proposed guidelines for improving HEI learning and teaching processes and their work environments. Implementing these guidelines can lead to gender-inclusive education, support the intrinsic motivation of female students, and, consequently, empower their professional trajectories in STEM and entrepreneurship.

The analysis of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) revealed that entrepreneurial women interpret their behaviour through key features that enhance intrinsic motivation. These insights are crucial for understanding the factors that drive female entrepreneurs in STEM and tech sectors, providing a foundation for targeted strategies to foster their professional growth and success.

The following four main categories emerged within the autonomy construct: decision-making, personal goals, supportive environments, and autonomy versus well-being. Decision-making is intrinsic to entrepreneurial women’s behaviour, characterised by resilience and flexibility. Setting personal goals is closely linked to their sense of autonomy, driving both personal and professional success. Supportive environments, including family support, team dynamics, education programs, and professional networks, are essential for fostering autonomy. The relationship between autonomy and well-being is multifaceted, with autonomy enhancing job and life satisfaction while also presenting challenges like risk aversion and family responsibilities.

The competence construct highlighted the following four categories: competence evaluation, achievement and success, feedback and recognition, and intrinsic motivation and mastery. Entrepreneurial women display high levels of autonomy, competence, and leadership, continuously striving to overcome limits and adapt to changing conditions. Their sense of competence is closely tied to their achievement and success, which is multifaceted and includes personal fulfilment, professional accomplishments, and financial stability. Feedback and recognition are vital for their growth, building confidence and improving business processes. Mastery of knowledge and tools, driven by intrinsic motivation, is essential for their success, inspiring continuous innovation, and personal development.

The relatedness construct emphasised the following three categories: relationships, inclusion and belonging, and teamwork and collaboration. Building and maintaining social and supportive relationships is vital for fostering a sense of belonging and inclusion. Actively engaging in social interactions, attending forums, and building supportive relationships are crucial for navigating challenges and fostering a motivated entrepreneurial ecosystem. Promoting equal opportunities, open communication, and valuing diversity are integral to creating a supportive work environment and enhancing resilience and emotional health. Teamwork and collaboration, supported by clear communication and team-building activities, are fundamental for achieving common entrepreneurial goals and fostering a sense of shared purpose and mutual support.

The interviewees provided valuable guidelines for improving HEIs, emphasizing the importance of creating an environment conducive to the development of entrepreneurial women in STEM. The interviewees outlined key strategies for HEIs, highlighting the need for a culture of trust, open communication, collaboration, and responsible use of power. Essential competencies that HEIs should focus on developing include proactivity, flexibility, self-confidence, strong values and attitudes, effective communication, practical learning, critical thinking, innovation, creativity, benchmarking, and the integration of entrepreneurship as a transversal learning element. These strategies and competencies are crucial for defining the profile of future women entrepreneurs and professionals in the STEM field, fostering their professional growth and success.

These HEI strategies outlined the profile definition of future women entrepreneurs or professionals in STEM. The interviewees emphasised that entrepreneurship should be recognised as a viable career path. They underscored the importance of education in real-world contexts and the cultivation of strong values and highlighted the need to promote a supportive work environment that fosters trust, communication, and continuous learning.

Building trust in social relations can be particularly challenging, but seeking coaching and training can be immensely beneficial. Frequent communication and engaging in shared activities can strengthen social relationships. Learning new skills and technical competencies are also crucial for entrepreneurial success. Effective talent management, a solid business plan, and a growth-oriented mindset are key characteristics that can drive success in business endeavours.

In conclusion, this study aimed to enhance educational institutions by fostering environments that promote competence development and pinpointing key features essential for defining the profile of entrepreneurial women in STEM. The findings could also be applicable to governmental agencies, private sector companies, and innovation hubs that play vital roles in supporting women in STEM fields. By including these institutions, this study could have had a broader impact on fostering entrepreneurship, promoting gender equality, and driving innovation across various sectors.

By focusing on these critical aspects, HEIs can provide better support to female students, thereby empowering their professional journeys in STEM and entrepreneurship. Based on the findings, we recommend the following actions for HEIs to empower female students in STEM:

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Mentorship Programs: Establish mentorship networks specifically for female students in STEM. Pair them with successful women entrepreneurs to provide guidance, share experiences, and offer practical insights for overcoming challenges in male-dominated fields;

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Practical Entrepreneurship Courses: Integrate hands-on, project-based entrepreneurship modules into STEM curricula. These should include opportunities to collaborate with industry professionals and work on real-world problems, allowing students to experience entrepreneurial decision-making first-hand;

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Industry Partnerships: Form partnerships with tech companies and startup incubators that support female-led ventures. This will provide students with access to funding opportunities, internships, and professional networks essential for launching successful businesses.

Many STEM students, especially women, are not exposed to entrepreneurship as a viable career option. Traditional STEM programs tend to focus on technical skills rather than entrepreneurial thinking. By promoting entrepreneurship, HEIs can help students understand that starting a business is not only a career choice but a way to innovate, apply their skills in real-world settings, and contribute to economic growth.

A significant limitation of this study is the small sample size, consisting of only 14 women. Given the scope of this research, such a limited and heterogeneous sample makes it difficult to achieve data saturation, which in turn restricts the generalisability of the findings and may reduce the depth of insights gained on the topic.

Future studies should aim to include a larger and more diverse sample to enable a more comprehensive analysis and strengthen the robustness of the results. Follow-up research could offer deeper insights and provide a more accurate representation of the population studied.