Fundamental Movement Skills in Hong Kong Kindergartens: A Grade-Level Analysis

Abstract

Fundamental movement skills (FMSs) are essential building blocks for children’s physical development and future participation in physical activities. While early childhood curriculum frameworks recognize the importance of teaching FMSs, little research has been conducted to explore actual teaching practices in center-based programs and their variations across different grade levels. The goals of this study were to investigate (1) the frequency of a variety of FMSs in the physical activities conducted by Hong Kong kindergarten teachers, (2) the association among these FMSs based on the frequency of use in the classroom, and (3) potential differences in FMSs across the three grade levels of kindergarten education in Hong Kong. The participants were 526 kindergarten teachers. Descriptive statistics, principal component analysis, and parametric statistical techniques (e.g., one-way ANOVA) were employed to analyze their responses to a survey, in which we asked teachers to report the frequency with which FMSs are involved in their classroom physical activities. Overall, we found that the participants practiced an imbalanced set of FMSs in classrooms. K3 teachers were found to incorporate a wider variety of FMSs into their physical activities compared to K1 and K2 teachers. Through principal component analysis, seven components of activities were identified. K3 teachers were found to implement more activities involving springing, object manipulation, uneven locomotor movements, and agility and coordination. We concluded that there is a need to provide structured opportunities for teachers to better facilitate children’s FMS acquisition. Offering more explicit guidelines and further professional development for teachers is crucial to enhancing this situation.

1. Introduction

Fundamental movement skills (FMSs) are essential building blocks for children’s physical development and their future participation in physical activities [1]. Previous research has consistently demonstrated a positive association between FMSs and children’s cognitive, social, and physical development (e.g., [2,3,4]). While it is widely accepted that the development of FMSs should be prioritized in kindergarten programs [5,6], there is a scarcity of research on the specific skills being taught in kindergarten classrooms. This study aimed to examine the teaching of FMSs in Hong Kong kindergartens, focusing on the frequency and associations of various FMSs in the physical activities conducted by teachers. Additionally, this study sought to identify potential differences in these skills across the three grade levels of kindergarten education in Hong Kong. The literature review is divided into two sub-sections. First, we review the international literature focusing on FMSs in early childhood education, specifically during 3–6 years of age. In the second sub-section, we delve into Hong Kong’s kindergarten education curriculum pertaining to physical activities and FMSs.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Fundamental Movement Skill Development in Early Childhood Education

FMSs refer to “a specific set of gross motor skills that involve different parts of the body” [7]. These skills form the basis for acquiring the more intricate and specialized movements utilized in play, sports, games, and other physical activities [8]. In children, advanced FMSs are associated with a range of health and developmental benefits, including a lower body mass index [1], and improved working memory [9] and self-confidence [10]. Moreover, research has shown that better FMS competency in childhood is associated with higher levels of physical activities during adolescence and adulthood [11]. However, the development of FMSs is not solely a natural process that occurs over time. Instead, it requires sufficient coaching, reinforcement, and intentional practice [12], particularly during early childhood [1]. For example, recent studies (e.g., [3,13,14]) have suggested that active physical engagement in music and movement is developmentally appropriate and can be readily integrated into kindergarten classrooms, serving as an effective method to support FMS development in young children.

FMSs can be classified into three main groups: locomotor skills, body management skills, and object control skills [8,15,16]. Locomotor skills refer to the skills that enable children to move their body horizontally (e.g., walking, running, jumping long, crawling, and skipping) or vertically (e.g., jumping vertically, hopping, climbing, galloping, and leaping). These skills are often practiced in a spacious environment, preferably outdoors [17]. The evidence shows that physical activities involving locomotor skills often involve a higher intensity level [18]. Body management skills encompass the ability to maintain balance and control of the body when stationary and during movement. Examples include static or dynamic balancing, bending, stretching, rolling, tumbling, and twisting. Finally, object control skills are those that allow children to manipulate objects using their hands, fingers, and feet. These skills include rolling a ball, tossing, throwing, catching, dribbling, kicking, pulling, pushing, balancing objects, and riding on pedal tricycles.

The existing studies on the provision of FMSs in kindergarten physical activities have primarily utilized observation methods. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, no study has explored how the provision varies across different grade levels. For instance, Bautista et al. [19] conducted an observational study involving 108 K1 kindergarten classrooms in Singapore (equivalent to K2 in Hong Kong). Their findings revealed that FMS activities were absent in over 40% of the observed classrooms, indicating that kindergarten teachers did not consistently incorporate physical activities into their daily routines. Additionally, the study highlighted a tendency among teachers to prioritize body management skills over locomotor and object control skills. Studies conducted in the United States investigated the involvement of FMSs in early childhood center-based physical activities [20,21]. These studies found that locomotor skills were commonly involved in the physical activities conducted by teachers. Thus, the potential impact of grade level on the frequency of the FMSs practiced in kindergarten settings remains unknown.

2.2. Hong Kong’s Curriculum Framework for Physical Activities and FMS Development

In Hong Kong, kindergartens provide center-based education programs for children aged 3–6 years, which are available on both half-day and full-day bases [22]. Despite being non-mandatory, almost all children in Hong Kong participate in kindergarten programs [23]. Children are enrolled in kindergartens based on their chronological age and are divided into three grade levels known as K1 (3–4 years), K2 (4–5 years), and K3 (5–6 years) [24].

In 2017, the Curriculum Development Council of Hong Kong published the “Kindergarten Education Curriculum Guide” (hereinafter referred to as the Guide), which serves as a curriculum framework to guide the practice of local kindergarten teachers [25]. The Guide includes “Physical Fitness and Health” as one of the six learning areas for children’s all-round development. The three objectives established for this learning area include (1) promoting the proficient development of FMSs, (2) fostering an interest in physical activities while instilling positive values and attitudes, and (3) cultivating a sense of health, safety, and self-protection [25].

Regarding “Physical Fitness and Health” [25], the Guide offers comprehensive guidelines for kindergarten teachers, encompassing pedagogical approaches and learning expectations. These guidelines highlighted the importance of providing ample encouragement, avoiding comparing children’s abilities, and progressively increasing the level of difficulty to ensure effective FMS acquisition in children. The Guide [25] also provides examples that illustrate the learning expectations in relation to “Physical Fitness and Health”. These examples spotlighted the anticipated development of FMSs through engaging in physical activities. Moreover, it is expected that children simultaneously develop team spirit, enhance their self-confidence, and gain an understanding of the functions of the five senses. Additionally, the Guide [25] recommends that half-day kindergartens allocate 45 to 60 min, and full-day kindergartens allocate 90 to 105 min, daily to physical, music, and art activities.

Previous studies in Hong Kong have primarily focused on the exposure to physical activities in kindergarten settings, rather than analyzing the specific FMSs involved in such activities. For instance, Fan et al. [26] examined 164 kindergarten inspection reports issued by the Hong Kong Education Bureau. Overall, their findings revealed a limited presence of physical activities in Hong Kong kindergartens. Yuen [27] also conducted a survey of 327 kindergartens in Hong Kong. It was found that 80% of the kindergartens exclusively offered half-day programs that provided limited exposure to physical activities, with sessions lasting less than 30 min. Similar findings have been reported in other countries, including New Zealand [12] and the US [28], where children had limited opportunities to engage in physical activities during class time.

3. Research Goals

While numerous studies have investigated the practice of FMSs in kindergarten settings (e.g., [15,29]), research on the frequency and association of the FMS involved in physical activities across different grade levels is still limited. Thus, the current study aimed to address this research gap in the Hong Kong setting. This study had three research goals:

Goal #1: To investigate the frequency of a variety of FMSs in the physical activities conducted by Hong Kong kindergarten teachers.

Goal #2: To investigate the association among these FMSs based on the frequency of use in classrooms.

Goal #3: To analyze potential differences in FMSs across the three grade levels of kindergarten education in Hong Kong (K1, K2, and K3).

4. Method

4.1. Participants

A total of 526 Hong Kong kindergarten teachers (female: 94.7%; male: 4.2%; unspecified: 1.0%) participated in the study, representing approximately 4.2% of the total population of kindergarten teachers in the territory [30].

Table 1. Participants’ demographic information.

Characteristic	Frequency (n = 526)	Percentage
Gender
Female	499	94.7%
Male	22	4.2%
Unspecified	5	1.0%
Kindergarten Level
K1	196	37.3%
K2	157	29.8%
K3	173	32.9%
Age
20 or below	4	0.8%
20–29	342	65.0%
30–39	102	19.4%
40–49	49	9.3%
50–59	27	5.1%
60+	2	0.4%
Working Mode
Part time	38	7.2%
Full time	488	92.8%
Educational Qualification
Associate degree/higher diploma or lower	338	64.3%
Bachelor’s degree	138	26.2%
Postgraduate or above	50	9.5%
Teaching Experience
5 years or less	312	59.3%
5–15 years	149	28.3%
15+ years	65	12.4%

presents the demographic information of the participants. Among the respondents, 37.3% (n = 196) were K1 teachers, 29.8% (n = 157) were K2 teachers, and 32.9% (n = 173) were K3 teachers. The age range of the participants was wide. Most of them (65.0%) were between 20 and 29 years old, 19.4% were between 30 and 39, 9.3% were between 40 and 49, 5.5% were older than 50, and finally 0.8% were 20 or younger. Most participants (92.8%) worked full-time. In terms of educational qualifications, 64.3% of the participants held an associate degree or higher diploma (or lower), 26.2% had a bachelor’s degree, and 9.5% possessed postgraduate qualifications or above. Regarding teaching experience, 59.3% of the participants had five years or less of experience as kindergarten teachers, 28.3% had five to 15 years of experience, and 12.4% had more than 15 years of experience. Note that the gender distribution and educational qualifications accurately reflect the composition of the Hong Kong kindergarten sector [30].

4.2. Research Design and Data Collection Instrument

This study utilized a quantitative survey [31]. The survey began by collecting demographic information from the participating teachers, including information about their educational qualifications, working mode (full time vs. part time), age, and amount of teaching experience. Additionally, the teachers were asked to specify the grade level they would be referring to in the subsequent survey section. Next, we asked the participants to indicate the frequencies with which a variety of FMSs were involved in physical activities they conducted in classrooms. The question posed was “How often did you implement activities that required the following skill during your physical activity sessions (excluding free play)?” A list of 29 FMSs commonly observed in 3–6-year-old children was presented, such as “crawling”, “static balancing”, and “ball bouncing”. The teachers were asked to indicate the frequency of each skill using a 5-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from never, rarely (1–3 times per year), occasionally (once a week or less), frequently (several times per week), and very frequently (every day).

A four-phase process was employed to ensure the validity of the survey’s content. The details of each phase are outlined below:

Phase 1: Literature review, preliminary list of FMSs, and expert judgment. The list of 29 FMSs included in the survey was based on a detailed review of various bodies of literature, including several taxonomies of movement skills (e.g., [32,33,34]), manuals commonly used in early childhood teacher education that specifically focus on physical activities (e.g., [35,36,37]), and the Hong Kong official Curriculum Guide [25]. Each skill was accompanied by an illustrative picture to facilitate understanding (for examples, see Figure 1 and Figure 2). To ensure the comprehensiveness and inclusiveness of this list of FMSs, five specialists in early childhood physical activities education reviewed several preliminary versions and assessed their clarity and suitability.

Phase 2: Preliminary version of survey. We revised the list of FMSs based on the feedback from the specialists. Subsequently, a preliminary survey draft was developed by incorporating a 5-point Likert scale.

Phase 3: Survey pilot. We piloted the preliminary survey draft with 30 kindergarten teachers. The teachers were asked to think out loud while completing the survey to better understand their thinking processes. After completing the survey, individual interviews were conducted with the teachers to gather feedback on the relevance and clarity of the survey items and the proposed response choices.

Phase 4: Final version and translation. Considering the comments collected in Phase 3, refinements were made to the survey. The final version of the survey was translated from English to Traditional Chinese. To ensure the accuracy of the translation, a back-translation was carried out by an external research assistant. Lastly, the survey was uploaded to the “Qualtrics Online Survey Platform” (http://www.qualtrics.com, (accessed on 1 September 2023)) for distribution and data collection.

4.3. Procedure

Ethical approval was obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of the authors’ university (reference number: 2022-2023-0298). An invitation letter, along with an information sheet explaining the study’s objectives, a consent form, and the survey link, was sent to every kindergarten principal in Hong Kong. The principals were asked to spread the invitation to all teachers responsible for teaching K1, K2, and K3 children in their kindergartens. To encourage participation, two follow-up emails were sent to the principals as a friendly reminder to encourage their assistance in distributing the survey. The first follow-up email was sent two weeks after the initial email, and the second one was sent one week before the end of the survey period. Because the survey was distributed across a large number of kindergartens, the exact number of teachers who received the survey is unknown. Thus, the response rate could not be determined. The survey remained active on the Qualtrics platform for 1.5 months. The participants had the flexibility to use either computers or mobile devices and could choose their preferred language. Before starting the survey, the teachers were assured that all collected information would be kept anonymous and confidential. Informed consent was also obtained from the teachers before they proceeded to answer the survey questions.

4.4. Data Analysis

During the data-cleaning process, 144 out of the initial 670 completed survey entries were deemed invalid and thus excluded for various reasons (e.g., the participant was not working as a kindergarten teacher, the participant gave inconsistent answers to the control questions, the participant completed the survey in an unreasonably short amount of time). We converted the response options of the Likert scales into numeric values: never = 1; rarely = 2; occasionally = 3; frequently = 4; and very frequently = 5. For Goal #1, we utilized descriptive statistics (e.g., frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) to analyze the data. For Goal #2, a principal component analysis was performed to explore potential underlying components among the 29 FMSs. Principal component analysis is a statistical technique that is often used for variable reduction to replace a large number of variables while preserving as much of the variation in the original data set as possible [38]. Varimax (orthogonal) rotation was applied to interpret the results. Additionally, Cronbach’s alpha was computed to evaluate the internal consistency of each component. For Goal #3, we utilized the mean score of each of the 29 FMSs to determine their respective ranking position (i.e., 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) for each kindergarten grade level. Skills with higher means were ranked higher. Subsequently, one-way ANOVAs were performed to examine the effects of kindergarten grade levels (K1, K2, and K3) on the frequency of FMSs. A post hoc Tukey HSD test was performed to detect significant differences. All data analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 28.0.

5. Results

5.1. Goal #1: Fundamental Movement Skills Involved in Physical Activities

As shown in Figure 3, the response options occasionally and rarely were most commonly chosen by teachers, followed by frequently and never. In contrast, the option very frequently was the least frequently chosen.

Table 2. Frequency of fundamental movement skills in kindergartens. Responses to “How often did you implement activities that required the following skill during your physical activity sessions (excluding free play)?”

Fundamental Movement Skill	Never (1)		Rarely (2)		Occasionally (3)		Frequently (4)		Very Frequently (5)		Overall Mean (SD)	95% CI
	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%		LB	UB
Riding on pedal tricycles or bikes	20	3.8	52	9.9	117	22.2	178	33.8	159	30.2	3.77 (1.10)	3.67	3.86
Bending and stretching	22	4.2	70	13.3	138	26.2	169	32.1	127	24.1	3.59 (1.12)	3.49	3.68
Walking or running on different levels	31	5.9	92	17.5	156	30.2	110	20.9	134	25.5	3.43 (1.21)	3.32	3.53
Jumping vertically	25	4.8	53	10.1	191	36.3	191	36.6	66	12.5	3.42 (0.99)	3.33	3.50
Tossing, throwing, and/or catching	5	1.0	71	13.5	216	41.1	196	37.3	38	7.2	3.36 (0.84)	3.29	3.43
Dynamic balancing	15	2.9	70	13.3	213	40.5	184	35.0	44	8.4	3.33 (0.91)	3.25	3.40
Walking or running on different pathways	10	1.9	82	15.6	216	41.1	162	30.8	56	10.6	3.33 (0.93)	3.25	3.41
Ball bouncing/dribbling	18	3.4	94	17.9	228	43.3	149	28.3	37	7.0	3.18 (0.92)	3.10	3.26
Crawling	22	4.2	115	21.9	211	40.1	128	24.3	50	9.5	3.13 (1.00)	2.05	3.22
Kicking a ball	16	3.0	124	23.6	240	45.6	120	22.8	26	4.9	3.03 (0.89)	2.95	3.11
Hopping	42	8.0	93	17.7	222	42.2	150	28.5	19	3.6	3.02 (0.96)	2.94	3.10
Climbing	94	17.9	106	20.2	140	26.6	119	22.6	67	12.7	2.92 (1.28)	2.81	3.03
Skipping	49	9.3	153	29.1	210	39.9	89	16.9	25	4.8	2.79 (0.99)	2.70	2.87
Lifting and/or raising objects	63	12.0	162	30.8	170	32.3	113	21.5	18	3.4	2.74 (1.04)	2.65	2.82
Pulling and/or pushing objects	42	8.0	189	35.9	180	34.2	100	19.0	15	2.9	2.73 (0.95)	2.65	2.81
Static balancing	72	13.7	163	31.0	185	35.2	84	16.0	22	4.2	2.66 (1.04)	2.57	2.75
Jumping horizontally	55	10.5	184	35.0	211	40.1	67	12.7	9	1.7	2.60 (0.90)	2.53	2.68
Rolling a ball	53	10.1	192	36.5	220	41.8	53	10.1	8	1.5	2.56 (0.86)	2.49	2.64
Leaping	74	14.1	185	35.2	186	35.4	71	13.4	10	1.9	2.54 (0.96)	2.46	2.62
Walking on bucket stilts	124	23.6	159	30.2	165	31.4	64	12.2	14	2.7	2.40 (1.06)	2.31	2.49
Balancing objects	60	11.4	243	46.2	183	34.8	36	6.8	4	0.8	2.39 (0.81)	2.32	2.46
Jumping off a platform with a low height	119	22.6	180	34.2	148	28.1	63	12.0	16	3.0	2.39 (1.05)	2.30	2.48
Dodging	118	22.4	217	41.3	147	27.9	42	8.0	2	0.4	2.23 (0.90)	2.15	2.30
Galloping	130	27.4	199	37.8	156	29.7	37	7.0	4	0.8	2.21 (0.92)	2.13	2.29
Rolling/tumbling	131	24.9	215	40.9	146	27.8	33	6.3	1	0.2	2.16 (0.88)	2.08	2.23
Twisting	141	26.8	204	38.8	144	27.4	30	5.7	7	1.3	2.16 (0.93)	2.08	2.24
Hitting a ball with hands or equipment	154	29.3	198	37.6	143	27.2	27	5.1	4	0.8	2.10 (0.91)	2.03	2.18
Rope skipping	208	39.5	186	35.4	105	20.0	22	4.2	5	1.0	1.92 (0.92)	1.84	1.99
Digging in sandbox	311	59.1	139	26.4	53	10.1	15	2.9	8	1.5	1.61 (0.89)	1.54	1.69
OVERALL	76.7	14.6	144.5	28.5	173.8	32.0	96.6	18.4	41.2	6.5	2.62 (0.44)	2.58	2.65

Notes: CI = confidence interval; LB = lower bound; UB = upper bound. The response choice with the highest percentage for each skill is highlighted in grey.

presents the descriptive statistics of the teachers’ responses regarding the 29 FMSs, including the frequencies and percentages for each response choice, overall mean score, and standard deviations. The resulting means ranged from 1.61 to 3.77, with the maximum score being 5. The most common response for each skill is highlighted in grey. None of the FMSs obtained a mean score above 4 (frequently). Among the 29 skills presented, 11 skills obtained a mean score over 3 (e.g., “riding on pedal tricycles or bikes”, “bending and stretching”), 16 skills obtained a mean score between 2 and 3 (e.g., “climbing” and “skipping”), and 2 skills obtained a mean score between 1 and 2 (i.e., “rope skipping” and “digging in sandbox”).

As shown in Table 2, “riding on pedal tricycles or bikes” and “bending and stretching” were the most frequently involved skills, with over half of the teachers reporting practicing these skills very frequently and frequently. Following these highly reported skills, there were 16 skills for which most teachers indicated they were used occasionally, such as “walking or running on different levels”, “tossing, throwing, and/or catching”, and “dynamic balancing”. Nine skills, such as “pulling and/or pushing objects”, “jumping horizontally”, and “balancing objects”, were relatively less common, as most teachers reported practicing them rarely. Among the skills listed, “Rope skipping” and “digging in sandbox” were ranked at the lowest position in the table. Most teachers reported that they had never practiced them in their classrooms.

5.2. Goal #2: Association Among FMSs Based on the Frequency of Use in Classrooms

Table 3. Principal component analysis: Varimax-rotated matrix of fundamental movement skills.

Fundamental Movement Skill	Component
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Jumping vertically	0.595
Bending and stretching	0.578
Hopping	0.517
Dynamic balancing	0.430
Riding on pedal tricycles or bikes		0.611
Climbing		0.565
Static balancing		0.468
Crawling		0.453
Kicking a ball			0.707
Ball bouncing/dribbling			0.700
Tossing, throwing, and/or catching			0.639
Pulling and/or pushing objects			0.573
Lifting and/or raising objects			0.566
Balancing objects			0.440
Jumping off a platform with a low height				0.691
Jumping horizontally				0.592
Walking or running on different levels				0.570
Skipping					0.757
Galloping					0.757
Leaping					0.700
Rope skipping						0.708
Walking on bucket stilts						0.688
Dodging						0.430
Rolling/tumbling							0.711
Twisting							0.649
Rolling a ball							0.458
Hitting a ball with hands or equipment							0.488
Digging in sandbox							0.444

Percentage of variance explained: 54.416% (Component 1: 26.715%; Component 2: 5.679%; Component 3: 5.408%; Component 4: 4.692%; Component 5: 4.347%; Component 6: 4.113% and Component 7: 3.462%). Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) = 0.903. Bartlett’s test of sphericity: p < 0.001.

presents the results of the principal component analysis conducted on the 29 FMSs using Varimax (orthogonal) rotation. The correlation among the skills was well-defined for principal component analysis, as indicated by the high Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value of 0.903 and a significant result (p < 0.001) in Bartlett’s test of sphericity. Seven components were extracted based on an eigenvalue set at 1, explaining a cumulative variance of 54.416% for all variables. The average commonality among all items was 0.59, indicating stability in the analysis [39]. It is worth noting that a loading of 0.7 is typically considered as the threshold for component importance. However, Hair et al. [40] suggested that a loading of 0.4 or above can still be considered acceptable. Thus, a cutoff point of 0.4 for component loading was used in this study. As a result, the skill “walking or running on different pathways” was excluded from the analysis as its loading of 0.35 fell below this cutoff point.

The principal component analysis allowed us to identify seven components. We labeled each component based on the common characteristics of its corresponding items. The details of each identified component and their labels are as follows (from highest to lowest frequency):

• Component 1: Springing

This component (M = 3.34, SD = 0.66, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.805) correlated most strongly with “jumping vertically.” All items in this component were focused on the development of springing competence.

• Component 2: Interlimb Coordination

This component (M = 3.12, SD = 0.73, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.825) strongly correlated with “riding on pedal tricycles or bikes”. All the items in this component were related to movements requiring coordination between the left and right limbs.

• Component 3: Object Manipulation

This component (M = 2.90, SD = 0.64, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.813) had the strongest correlation with “kicking a ball” and comprised items related to manipulating objects.

• Component 4: Even Locomotor Movements

This component (M = 2.80, SD = 0.80, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.823) showed the strongest correlation with “jumping off a platform with a low height”. All items within this component could be completed in a single movement.

• Component 5: Uneven Locomotor Movements

This component (M = 2.51, SD = 0.66, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.815) correlated most strongly with “skipping” and “galloping”. All items in this component obtained high loadings and consisted of multiple movements performed on uneven rhythms.

• Component 6: Agility and Coordination

This component (M = 2.18, SD = 0.72, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.820) correlated strongly with “rope skipping” and included skills involving hand, foot, and eye coordination.

• Component 7: Body Control

This component (M = 2.12, SD = 0.60, Cronbach’s alpha = 0.818) strongly correlated with “rolling/tumbling” and “twisting”. The other three items related to object manipulation obtained relatively lower but acceptable loadings.

5.3. Goal #3: Grade Level Differences

Table 4. Ranking of fundamental movement skills among three kindergarten grade levels.

Fundamental Movement Skill	Overall Mean (SD)	K1		K2		K3
		Rank	M (SD)	Rank	M (SD)	Rank	M (SD)
Riding on pedal tricycles or bikes	3.77 (1.10)	1st	3.79 (1.16)	1st	3.66 (1.08)	1st	3.84 (1.04)
Bending and stretching d	3.59 (1.12)	6th	3.38 * (1.12)	2nd	3.60 (1.18)	2nd	3.82 (1.01)
Walking or running on different levels	3.43 (1.21)	2nd	3.52 (1.16)	3rd	3.36 (1.22)	5th	3.38 (1.25)
Jumping vertically e	3.42 (0.99)	3rd	3.43 (1.04)	7th	3.26 *** (1.00)	3rd	3.55 (0.91)
Tossing, throwing, and/or catching	3.36 (0.84)	8th	3.31 (0.86)	4th	3.33 (0.85)	4th	3.46 (0.80)
Dynamic balancing	3.33 (0.91)	7th	3.35 (0.92)	5th	3.28 (0.95)	7th	3.35 (0.85)
Walking or running on different pathways	3.33 (0.93)	5th	3.41 (0.98)	6th	3.27 (0.88)	9th	3.28 (0.91)
Ball bouncing/dribbling f	3.18 (0.92)	9th	3.05 *** (0.98)	8th	3.11 *** (0.90)	5th	3.38 (0.85)
Crawling a	3.13 (1.00)	4th	3.42 (0.92)	10th	2.96 * (0.86)	12th	2.96 * (1.12)
Kicking a ball e	3.03 (0.89)	10th	3.02 (0.93)	12th	2.86 *** (0.87)	10th	3.20 (0.83)
Hopping c	3.02 (0.96)	14th	2.72 * (1.02)	9th	3.10 (0.84)	8th	3.29 (0.91)
Climbing	2.92 (1.28)	11th	2.81 (1.30)	11th	2.90 (1.32)	11th	3.07 (1.23)
Skipping	2.79 (0.99)	15th	2.70 (1.06)	13th	2.77 (0.99)	14th	2.90 (0.90)
Lifting and/or raising objects	2.74 (1.03)	12th	2.77 (1.08)	15th	2.61 (1.02)	15th	2.82 (0.99)
Pulling and/or pushing objects	2.73 (0.95)	13th	2.74 (0.89)	14th	2.64 (1.01)	16th	2.79 (0.97)
Static balancing	2.66 (1.03)	16th	2.61 (1.06)	16th	2.58 (1.03)	16th	2.79 (1.01)
Jumping horizontally	2.60 (0.90)	18th	2.56 (0.96)	17th	2.54 (0.84)	18th	2.71 (0.88)
Rolling a ball	2.57 (0.86)	17th	2.59 (0.90)	18th	2.50 (0.83)	20th	2.59 (0.84)
Leaping	2.54 (0.96)	19th	2.52 (1.04)	19th	2.45 (0.96)	19th	2.65 (0.84)
Walking on bucket stilts f	2.40 (1.06)	26th	2.03 * (1.05)	22nd	2.30 * (1.00)	13th	2.91 (0.91)
Balancing objects d	2.39 (0.81)	21st	2.29 *** (0.84)	20th	2.36 (0.74)	21st	2.54 (0.82)
Jumping off a platform with a low height	2.39 (1.05)	20th	2.42 (1.09)	20th	2.36 (1.06)	24th	2.37 (1.02)
Dodging f	2.23 (0.90)	23rd	2.11 * (0.94)	26th	2.08 * (0.78)	22nd	2.49 (0.91)
Galloping f	2.21 (0.92)	26th	2.03 * (0.98)	23rd	2.17 *** (0.84)	23rd	2.46 (0.87)
Rolling/tumbling	2.16 (0.88)	22nd	2.22 (0.92)	27th	2.06 (0.84)	27th	2.17 (0.86)
Twisting	2.16 (0.93)	24th	2.07 (0.96)	24th	2.14 (0.90)	26th	2.28 (0.91)
Hitting a ball with hands or equipment	2.11 (0.91)	25th	2.06 (0.97)	25th	2.11 (0.87)	28th	2.16 (0.88)
Rope skipping f	1.92 (0.92)	29th	1.69 * (0.92)	28th	1.71 * (0.74)	25th	2.36 (0.91)
Digging in sandbox b	1.61 (0.89)	28th	1.73 (1.01)	29th	1.50 *** (0.83)	29th	1.58 (0.79)
OVERALL	2.62 (0.44)		2.55 * (0.47)		2.55 * (0.40)		2.75 (0.42)

The skills with wide variability are highlighted in grey. * p < 0.001, *** p < 0.05. ^a K1 > K2 and K3. ^b K1 > K2. ^c K2 and K3 > K1. ^d K3 >K1. ^e K3 > K2. ^f K3 > K1 and K2.

presents each FMS’s mean, standard deviation, and rank position across the three kindergarten grade levels. While the skills’ ranking positions were generally similar across the three grade levels, there was a notable wide variability for four specific skills (highlighted in grey). The skill with the widest difference in ranking was “walking on bucket stilts”, which ranked 26th for K1, 22nd for K2, and 13th for K3. The other three skills with vast ranking differences were “crawling” (4th for K1, 10th for K2, and 12th for K3), “hopping” (14th for K1, 9th for K2, and 8th for K3), and “rolling/tumbling” (22nd for K1, and 27th for K2 and K3). K3 teachers reported the highest overall mean score for the 29 skills compared to K1 and K2 teachers. A one-way ANOVA test revealed a significant difference between the three grade levels (F (2, 523) = 13.085, p < 0.001). Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for K3 (M = 2.75, SD = 0.42) was significantly higher than that of K1 (M = 2.55, SD = 0.47, p < 0.001) and K2 (M = 2.55, SD = 0.40, p < 0.001).

Table 4 also presents the FMSs in which statistically significant differences were found when comparing the frequency of each skill across the kindergarten grade levels. When comparing the frequency of “crawling” across three grade levels, significant differences (p < 0.001) were found. K1 teachers practiced this skill in physical activities more frequently than K2 and K3 teachers. Similarly, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the frequency of “digging in sandbox”, with K1 teachers practicing this skill more frequently than K2 teachers. The post hoc (Tukey) test indicated that K2 and K3 teachers practiced “hopping” more frequently than K1 teachers. Additionally, teachers at K3 practiced “bending and stretching” and “balancing objects” more frequently than K1 teachers, as well as “jumping vertically” and “kicking a ball” more frequently than K2 teachers. Finally, teachers in K3 reported a higher frequency of “ball bouncing/dribbling”, “walking on bucket stilts”, “dodging”, “galloping”, and “rope skipping” compared to both K1 and K2 teachers.

Table 5. Seven components of fundamental movement skills across three kindergarten grade levels.

Component	F (2, 523)	K1		K2		K3
		Rank	M (SD)	Rank	M (SD)	Rank	M (SD)
Springing a	8.821	1st	3.22 * (0.72)	1st	3.31 *** (0.63)	1st	3.50 (0.59)
Interlimb Coordination	1.945	2nd	3.16 (0.74)	2nd	3.02 (0.69)	2nd	3.16 (0.76)
Object Manipulation a	5.162	3rd	2.86 *** (0.66)	3rd	2.82 *** (0.64)	3rd	3.03 (0.61)
Even Locomotor Movements	0.476	4th	2.84 (0.82)	4th	2.75 (0.78)	4th	2.82 (0.80)
Uneven Locomotor Movements a	5.422	5th	2.42 *** (0.84)	5th	2.46 *** (0.74)	5th	2.67 (0.71)
Agility and Coordination a	48.299	7th	1.95 * (0.74)	7th	2.03 * (0.59)	6th	2.59 (0.64)
Body Control	1.054	6th	2.13 (0.64)	6th	2.06 (0.56)	7th	2.15 (0.58)
OVERALL a			2.65 * (0.54)		2.63 * (0.46)		2.85 (0.48)

* p < 0.001, *** p < 0.05. ^a K3 > K1 and K2.

presents the rank positions, mean scores, and standard deviations of the seven components of FMSs across the different grade levels. K3 teachers reported the highest overall mean score for the seven components of FMSs compared to K1 and K2 teachers. A one-way ANOVA test revealed a significant difference between the three grade levels (F (2, 523) = 9.421, p < 0.001). Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for K3 (M = 2.85, SD = 0.48) was significantly higher than that of K1 (M = 2.65, SD = 0.54, p < 0.001) and K2 (M = 2.63, SD = 0.46, p < 0.001). Significant differences were found when comparing the component mean scores for Object Manipulation and Uneven Locomotor Movements (p < 0.05) across three grade levels. Specifically, K3 teachers had significantly higher mean scores than those of K1 and K2 teachers. Moreover, K3 teachers also had significantly higher mean scores for Agility and Coordination compared to K1 and K2 teachers (p < 0.001). The component mean score for Springing was significantly higher among K3 teachers compared to both K1 (p < 0.001) and K2 teachers (p < 0.05).

6. Discussion

Goal #1 was to investigate the frequency of a variety of FMSs in the physical activities conducted by Hong Kong kindergarten teachers. The overall mean score of 2.62 (out of 5) for the 29 FMSs reflects that these skills were rarely to occasionally involved in kindergarten physical activities. This finding is similar to the findings by Chow et al. [41], who found that only 0.2% of lesson time was dedicated to developing gross motor skills in Hong Kong kindergartens. The rather weak presence of FMSs in kindergarten classrooms could be attributed to various factors, such as the short duration of kindergarten programs in Hong Kong [27], teachers prioritizing academic areas (e.g., languages and mathematics) in order to meet parental expectations [23], or teachers’ insufficient knowledge about the FMSs that should or could be practiced [42]. Further research is needed to examine the specific factors that contribute to the relatively weak presence of FMSs in Hong Kong kindergartens.

The frequency of the 29 FMSs that we studied varied widely. Some skills (e.g., “riding on pedal tricycles or bikes” and “bending and stretching”) were frequently involved in physical activities, while others such as “rope skipping” and “digging in sandbox” were rarely practiced. Our findings contrast with the study by Brown et al. [20], who found that walking and running were prevalent in the physical activities conducted by teachers in the United States, while throwing and tumbling were less frequently observed. Nonetheless, both studies identified a somewhat imbalanced practice of FMSs in physical activities, highlighting the need for teachers to cover the various FMSs in a more balanced way to facilitate children’s holistic development [43,44].

Goal #2 was to investigate the association among FMSs based on the frequency of use in the classroom. This topic has not been investigated. We identified seven FMS components with different frequencies. In decreasing frequency order, these were Springing, Interlimb Coordination, Object Manipulation, Even Locomotor Movements, Uneven Locomotor Movements, Agility and Coordination, and Body Control. The most frequently practiced FMS component was Springing, which combined locomotor skills (i.e., “jumping vertically” and “hopping”) with body management skills (i.e., “bending and stretching” and “dynamic balancing”). Lee et al. [13] demonstrated an example of this combination of FMSs in Taiwan, where children engaged in music-related physical activities that required similar FMSs. Considering the prevalence of rhythmic movement activities in Hong Kong kindergartens [45], we infer that teachers may practice Springing FMSs in the context of music and movement activities, a strategy supported by previous studies [13,14,46].

In contrast, the components of Agility and Coordination and Body Control seemed to be rarely practiced in kindergartens. One plausible explanation could be that kindergarten teachers lack the necessary knowledge and pedagogical competence to design physical activities involving these FMS components [47] due to the limited preparation received for this field during teacher education programs. This issue constitutes an important barrier to quality physical education [15,42,48]. Indeed, kindergarten teachers are typically trained to be generalists [49] and thus lack sufficient training in physical activities and motor skill development [50]. This problem is not specific to Hong Kong, but it is also evident in many countries, such as Canada [51] and the Philippines [52]. This issue justifies ongoing calls for more explicit guidelines illustrated with examples of classroom activities to support teachers in the design and implementation of developmentally appropriate physical activities [53,54].

Regarding Goal #3, our findings indicated the significant role of the variable of grade level in influencing the practice of FMSs in the physical activities conducted in kindergartens. While the most common FMSs were similar across grade levels, our findings demonstrated that K3 teachers practice FMSs in physical activities more frequently compared to K1 and K2 teachers. Furthermore, the range of FMSs practiced by K3 teachers was broader. Specifically, K3 teachers were found to practice FMSs in Springing, Object Manipulation, Uneven Locomotor Movements, and Agility and Coordination significantly more often in their physical activities compared to the teachers from lower levels. These findings are distinctive and make an important contribution to the literature in this area, as prior studies, e.g., [19] have focused on a single grade level.

7. Conclusions

In conclusion, our findings shed light on the disparity between globally accepted guidelines pertaining to the practice of FMSs in early childhood education and the actual operation in Hong Kong kindergartens, mirroring similar trends in other non-academic domains such as music and arts [22,55]. In this context, teachers seem to practice an imbalanced set of FMSs, which deviates from the recommendations put forth by international organizations (e.g., [6,8]). This approach does not adequately support the holistic development of FMSs in children. Additionally, our study identified seven components of FMSs based on their frequency of use. These results contribute to a better understanding of how FMSs are being taught in kindergarten classrooms and enable teachers to identify any potential deficiencies in their instructional practices. These findings made an important contribution by uncovering clusters of frequency-based FMSs which have not been reported previously. Finally, our evidence highlights the importance of the variable of grade level in the practice of FMSs in Hong Kong kindergartens. While we observed similarities in the most common types of FMSs across the three grade levels, K3 teachers were found to practice a broader range of FMSs more frequently than K1 and K2 teachers. This underscores the importance of providing teachers across different grade levels with appropriate training and resources to enhance their ability to incorporate a richer and more diverse spectrum of FMSs.

8. Limitations and Future Research

There are several limitations that must be acknowledged. Despite the large sample size of teacher respondents, this study relied solely on self-reported survey data. Future studies would benefit from utilizing multiple data sources (e.g., observation) to corroborate whether teachers’ self-reported practices align with their actual implementation in the classroom and allow for data triangulation. Secondly, while this study explored the associations of FMSs based on the frequency of use in classrooms, it did not delve into the underlying reasons for these associations. Interviews with teachers could be conducted to explore the factors influencing the variation in FMS practices across grade levels. Finally, this study focused solely on Hong Kong kindergarten teachers. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of FMS involvement in early childhood education settings, future research should include data from teachers based in other countries and jurisdictions.

9. Implications

The findings of this study bring important implications for early childhood education stakeholders, including curriculum designers, policymakers, teacher educators, and PD providers. We suggest that curriculum designers provide more explicit expectations and guidelines regarding the involvement of FMSs in physical activities, along with concrete examples that can be easily implemented in kindergartens. Moreover, it would be beneficial for curriculum designers to benchmark the curriculum against recent updates in physical activity curricula from other countries, such as Singapore [56] and Australia [7], to ensure alignment with international practices. Considering that the decision to attend professional development is currently at the discretion of teachers and principals, we recommend that the government introduce initiatives to enhance teachers’ awareness in this specific learning domain and promote a culture of active participation in in-service training. Additionally, teacher educators and professional development providers should also design training courses tailored to the specific needs of teachers at the different grade levels. These courses should provide practical and age-appropriate physical activities that involve a wide range of FMSs. By equipping teachers with abundant knowledge and skills, children will have better physical development and overall health in the long run.