Association of High Levels of Bullying and Cyberbullying with Test Anxiety in Boys and Girls Aged 10 to 16 Years
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design and Participants
2.2. Measures
2.3. Procedure
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Analysis of Covariance of Bullying and Cyberbullying Victimization with Respect to Test Anxiety (Physiological Response, Avoidance Behaviors, and Cognitive Response)
3.2. Analysis of Covariance of Aggression in Bullying and Cyberbullying with Respect to Test Anxiety (Physiological Response, Avoidance Behaviors and Cognitive Response)
3.3. Binary Logistic Regression
4. Discussion
4.1. Bullying and Cyberbullying Victimization and Test Anxiety
4.2. Bullying and Cyberbullying Perpetration and Test Anxiety
4.3. Limitations and Strengths
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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All (n = 912) | Boys (n = 431) | Girls (n = 481) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variables | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | p |
Age (years) | 13.43 | 1.73 | 13.43 | 1.75 | 13.43 | 1.71 | 0.964 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 20.72 | 4.15 | 21.03 | 3.99 | 20.45 | 4.28 | 0.034 |
Mother’s school level (%) | 0.030 | ||||||
No studies | 5.4% | 5.2% | 5.6% | ||||
Primary studies (EGB) | 13.5% | 13.9% | 13.2% | ||||
Secondary studies (BUP) | 14.4% | 11.6% | 16.8% | ||||
Professional training | 13.2% | 12.1% | 14.1% | ||||
University studies | 32.5% | 30.7% | 34.1% | ||||
N/C | 21% | 26.5% | 16.2% | ||||
Mean MVPA | 3.97 | 1.76 | 4.35 | 1.75 | 3.64 | 1.70 | <0.001 |
Academic performance | 6.86 | 1.61 | 6.76 | 1.59 | 6.94 | 1.52 | 0.123 |
Bullying victimization | 1.80 | 0.78 | 1.77 | 0.78 | 1.83 | 0.79 | 0.211 |
Bullying aggression | 1.52 | 0.64 | 1.55 | 0.65 | 1.49 | 0.63 | 0.148 |
Cyberbullying victimization | 1.26 | 0.47 | 1.26 | 0.47 | 1.27 | 0.48 | 0.628 |
Cyberbullying aggression | 1.21 | 0.47 | 1.22 | 0.46 | 1.21 | 0.47 | 0.672 |
Physiological response to anxiety | 1.71 | 0.69 | 1.57 | 0.56 | 1.86 | 0.76 | <0.001 |
Avoidance behaviors | 1.24 | 0.57 | 1.23 | 0.57 | 1.25 | 0.58 | 0.688 |
Cognitive response to anxiety | 2.24 | 0.92 | 1.96 | 0.77 | 2.48 | 0.97 | <0.001 |
All (912) | Boys (431) | Girls (481) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | p | OR | 95%CI | N | p | OR | 95%CI | N | p | OR | 95%CI | ||
Bullying victimization | |||||||||||||
Physiological response | Low | 438 | 1 | Referent | 244 | 1 | Referent | 194 | 1 | Referent | |||
High | 452 | <0.001 | 2.058 | 1.636–2.588 | 174 | 0.013 | 2.055 | 1.485–2.844 | 278 | <0.001 | 2.225 | 1.579–0.133 | |
Avoidance behaviors | Low | 696 | 1 | Referent | 333 | 1 | Referent | 363 | Referent | ||||
High | 216 | 0.063 | 1.131 | 0.866–1.543 | 98 | 0.331 | 1.134 | 0.822–1.633 | 118 | 0.023 | 1.683 | 0.217–2.326 | |
Cognitive response | Low | 450 | 1 | Referent | 269 | 1 | Referent | 181 | Referent | ||||
High | 447 | <0.001 | 2.884 | 2.234–3.724 | 155 | 0.039 | 1.522 | 1.165–1.968 | 292 | <0.001 | 4.039 | 2.633–0.197 | |
Bullying aggression | |||||||||||||
Physiological response | Low | 438 | 1 | Referent | 244 | 1 | Referent | 194 | Referent | ||||
High | 452 | <0.001 | 1.724 | 1.325–2.243 | 174 | <0.001 | 2.133 | 1.452–3.133 | 278 | 0.023 | 1.892 | 1.241–0.883 | |
Avoidance behaviors | Low | 696 | 1 | Referent | 333 | 1 | Referent | 363 | Referent | ||||
High | 216 | <0.001 | 2.341 | 1.780–3.079 | 98 | <0.001 | 2.148 | 1.471–3.136 | 118 | <0.001 | 2.733 | 1.791–4.169 | |
Cognitive response | Low | 450 | 1 | Referent | 269 | 1 | Referent | 181 | Referent | ||||
High | 447 | <0.001 | 2.580 | 1.908–3.489 | 155 | <0.001 | 2.865 | 1.885–4.354 | 292 | <0.001 | 4.776 | 2.644–8.624 | |
Cyberbullying victimization | |||||||||||||
Physiological response | Low | 438 | 1 | Referent | 244 | 1 | Referent | 194 | Referent | ||||
High | 452 | <0.001 | 8.311 | 4.610–14.983 | 174 | <0.001 | 15.429 | 6.111–38.957 | 278 | <0.001 | 5.724 | 2.585–12.673 | |
Avoidance behaviors | Low | 696 | 1 | Referent | 333 | 1 | Referent | 363 | Referent | ||||
High | 216 | <0.001 | 5.106 | 3.358–7.766 | 98 | <0.001 | 5.341 | 2.829–10.084 | 118 | <0.001 | 4.022 | 3.815–7.959 | |
Cognitive response | Low | 450 | 1 | Referent | 269 | 1 | Referent | 181 | Referent | ||||
High | 447 | <0.001 | 21.545 | 9.842–47.164 | 155 | <0.001 | 20.030 | 7.154–56.080 | 292 | <0.001 | 41.452 | 9.628–78.463 | |
Cyberbullying aggression | |||||||||||||
Physiological response | Low | 438 | 1 | Referent | 244 | 1 | Referent | 194 | Referent | ||||
High | 452 | <0.001 | 6.560 | 3.617–11.899 | 174 | <0.001 | 14.296 | 5.757–35.684 | 278 | <0.001 | 5.043 | 2.115–12.026 | |
Avoidance behaviors | Low | 696 | 1 | Referent | 333 | 1 | Referent | 363 | Referent | ||||
High | 216 | <0.001 | 6.479 | 3.922–10.702 | 98 | <0.001 | 8.285 | 3.854–17.808 | 118 | <0.001 | 3.707 | 1.380–9.309 | |
Cognitive response | Low | 450 | 1 | Referent | 269 | 1 | Referent | 181 | Referent | ||||
High | 447 | <0.001 | 14.431 | 6.455–32.263 | 155 | <0.001 | 26.912 | 8.504–85.162 | 292 | <0.001 | 18.034 | 4.567–71.212 |
Number | Action or Treatment Focused on Test Anxiety | Scientific Citation |
---|---|---|
1 | Implement school programs that integrate the teaching of relaxation and mindfulness techniques before exams for students affected by bullying and cyberbullying | Foody and Samara [78] |
2 | Develop digital education programs for parents and students that include strategies for managing anxiety related to cyberbullying | Coelho, Marchante, and Romao [79] |
3 | Offer workshops on stress management and self-help techniques to improve test stress resilience in affected students | Eyuboglu et al. [77] |
4 | Create school activities that promote resilience and help students develop coping skills in the face of stressful testing situations | Gohal et al. [80] |
5 | Establish reporting and support systems that allow students to communicate their concerns about bullying anonymously and receive counseling to manage anxiety before exams | Martínez-Monteagudo et al. [60] |
6 | Launch awareness campaigns that educate students about the effects of bullying and cyberbullying on test anxiety and how to address it | Paulmony et al. [81] |
7 | Provide workshops for families on how to support students in managing test anxiety, especially in the context of bullying | Schneider and King [82] |
8 | Encourage the use of emotion journals for students to document their experiences and emotions related to exams, allowing for better follow-up and support | Marshall et al. [83] |
9 | Implement rapid action protocols in schools to address bullying incidents and reduce victims’ immediate anxiety before exams | Xia et al. [84] |
10 | Offer psychological recovery programs that include cognitive behavioral therapy to address both bullying and test anxiety in victims and perpetrators | Zhou et al. [85] |
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Rusillo-Magdaleno, A.; De la Torre-Cruz, M.J.; Ruiz-Ariza, A.; Suárez-Manzano, S. Association of High Levels of Bullying and Cyberbullying with Test Anxiety in Boys and Girls Aged 10 to 16 Years. Educ. Sci. 2024, 14, 999. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090999
Rusillo-Magdaleno A, De la Torre-Cruz MJ, Ruiz-Ariza A, Suárez-Manzano S. Association of High Levels of Bullying and Cyberbullying with Test Anxiety in Boys and Girls Aged 10 to 16 Years. Education Sciences. 2024; 14(9):999. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090999
Chicago/Turabian StyleRusillo-Magdaleno, Alba, Manuel J. De la Torre-Cruz, Alberto Ruiz-Ariza, and Sara Suárez-Manzano. 2024. "Association of High Levels of Bullying and Cyberbullying with Test Anxiety in Boys and Girls Aged 10 to 16 Years" Education Sciences 14, no. 9: 999. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090999