Active Gamification in the Emotional Well-Being and Social Skills of Primary Education Students

Abstract

(1) Background: Gamification has emerged as an innovative strategy in education and involves integrating game elements into pedagogical activities to enhance motivation and the development of cognitive and social skills. The aim was to analyze the effects of active gamification on the emotional well-being and social skills of primary school students. (2) Methods: A total of 120 children with a mean age of 9.40 ± 0.98 years were divided into an experimental group (EG) that carried out a program based on gamification in physical exercise and a control group (CG). (3) Results: The EG improved significantly in self-concept compared to the CG, as did the levels of personal self-esteem, which increased significantly. Likewise, improvements were found in all the subdomains of social skills, except in the subdomain of jealousy/loneliness. (4) Conclusions: The introduction of gamification into Physical Education classes is recommended as an effective tool to improve self-esteem, self-concept, and social skills in primary education.

1. Introduction

Primary education is a crucial period for the development of emotional and social skills that form the basis for comprehensive well-being throughout life (Taylor et al., 2017). During these years, children experience significant changes in their ability to understand and regulate emotions, establish interpersonal relationships, and develop a positive self-image (Denham & Zinsser, 2014). These skills not only impact their adaptation to the school environment but also influence their academic success (Durlak et al., 2011) and their ability to face the challenges of the social environment. However, various contextual and personal factors can interfere with this development (Pianta et al., 2016), underlining the need for specific interventions that favor the promotion of these skills from an early age (Santamaría-Villar et al., 2021).

Among the most relevant variables for emotional and social well-being in this population, self-esteem, self-concept, and social skills stand out (Twenge et al., 2018). Self-esteem, understood as the value that an individual has of himself, is closely related to his ability to face challenges and maintain healthy relationships (Pignault et al., 2023). For its part, self-concept, which encompasses the perceptions that a person has about his own capabilities and characteristics, acts as a fundamental pillar for the construction of personal identity (Erdoğan, 2023). Social skills, which include competencies such as communication, cooperation, and conflict resolution, are essential for integration into groups and positive interaction with others (Soto-Icaza et al., 2015). These three variables are interconnected and are modulated by school and social experiences, which highlights the role of school as a key environment for their reinforcement.

Physical exercise is widely studied as a protective factor that contributes to emotional and social development in childhood (Wang, 2022). Beyond its obvious benefits in terms of physical health, regular physical activity has shown positive associations with improved self-esteem, decreased symptoms of anxiety and depression, and strengthened social interactions (Cody et al., 2021). Furthermore, group physical activities provide an ideal context for learning social skills, as they foster cooperation, empathy, and joint problem solving. However, not all forms of physical exercise have the same impact, and the design of interventions that integrate these benefits in a structured manner and adapt to educational needs remains a challenge (Zhao & Chen, 2018).

In recent years, active gamification has emerged as an innovative methodology that combines the motivating elements of gaming with the benefits of physical exercise, proposing a more engaging and effective educational experience (Gkintoni et al., 2024). This approach is based on the incorporation of playful dynamics into physical activities, creating an environment that stimulates active participation, social interaction, and emotional reflection (Yang et al., 2022). Active gamification differs from other traditional strategies by employing game mechanics such as rewards, levels, and challenges, which increase intrinsic motivation and the involvement of participants (Mazeas et al., 2022). Although previous research has pointed to its potential to improve academic learning and student engagement, its specific impact on emotional and social well-being, particularly in the context of Primary Education, requires further detailed and rigorous exploration (Tan et al., 2021).

Although gamification has demonstrated promising results in various educational contexts, empirical evidence on its specific effectiveness in developing self-esteem, self-concept, and social skills among primary school students remains limited. Therefore, further research is necessary to assess the impact of active gamification on the emotional and social well-being of this population (Mohammed et al., 2024).

The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of active gamification on the emotional well-being and social skills of primary school students, providing empirical evidence on its effectiveness as an innovative educational strategy for comprehensive development in childhood.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design

This study utilized a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the influence of a gamification program on the emotional well-being and social skills of primary school students. The Ethics Committee of the Universidad del Atlántico Medio approved the research protocol. The research adhered to Spanish legislation on clinical research with human participants (Law 3/2018, 5 December, on Biomedical Research), personal data protection regulations (Organic Law 15/1999), and the ethical principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 version, Brazil).

2.2. Participants

Of the 129 students initially considered for the study, 120 met the inclusion criteria and were enrolled. The criteria required participants to (i) be between 8 and 11 years old; (ii) have no medical conditions restricting physical activity; (iii) not have intellectual disabilities that might interfere with understanding or following the study procedures; and (iv) provide signed informed consent from their parents or legal guardians (Figure 1). Those who did not qualify were permitted to join the intervention sessions with their peers but were excluded from the data analysis.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. Self-Esteem

The self-esteem test for schoolchildren, in its Spanish version, evaluates the image that the subject has of himself, whether it is a positive or negative attitude, and it presents 25 items (Marchant et al., 2002). As for qualification and interpretation, the present scale presents 23 statements; each one of them is evaluated through two response options: YES or NO. The qualification is made according to the template made by the author. In this template, there are the answers that point to a high level of self-esteem; that is why when grading a test, the template is used, and if the answers coincide, 1 point is given to the lowest, while if the answers differ, 0 points are given to the lowest. The answers are NO for items 1, 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, and 21, while the answers are YES for items 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 14, 18, 22, and 23 (

Table 1. Protocol for the student self-esteem test.

Items	Description	Expected Response
1	My classmates make fun of me	NO
2	I am a happy person	YES
3	I am clever, I am intelligent	YES
4	I am bothered by the way I look	NO
5	When I grow up I am going to be an important person	YES
6	I am good at doing my homework	YES
7	I like being the way I am	YES
8	I usually get into trouble	NO
9	I can speak well in front of my class	YES
10	I am the last one chosen for games	NO
11	I am good looking	YES
12	I want to be different	NO
13	I give up easily	NO
14	I have many friends	YES
15	When I try to do something everything goes wrong	NO
16	I feel left out	NO
17	My family is disappointed in me	NO
18	I have a nice face	YES
19	I am clumsy	NO
20	In games and sports, I watch instead of playing	NO
21	I forget what I learn	NO
22	My classmates think I have good ideas	YES
23	I am a good person	YES

).

Thus, for PD 22–25, a “High self-esteem” level is obtained; for PD 17–21, a “Tendency to high self-esteem” level is obtained; for PD 16, a “Self-esteem at risk” level is obtained; for PD 12–15, a “Tendency to low self-esteem” level is obtained; and for PD 11 or less, a “Low self-esteem” level is obtained.

2.3.2. Self-Concept

The Garley Self-Concept Questionnaire (CAG), validated in Spanish for primary level students, consists of 48 statements that are distributed in six dimensions: (a) physical self-concept (evaluates the acceptance and satisfaction that the subject has about his physical appearance), (b) social acceptance (evaluates the subject’s perception of his ability to be accepted by his peers), (c) family self-concept (evaluates the relationship that the subject has with his family and how he feels about it), (d) intellectual self-concept (evaluation of the subject’s intellectual abilities), (e) personal self-evaluation (global assessment of the person), and (f) sense of control (perception of the subject about the degree of control he has) (García, 2001). Each of these dimensions has 8 items. Regarding qualification and interpretation, the 48 items are evaluated through a 5-point Likert scale. The response options are never (1), rarely (2), I could not say (3), often (4), and always (5). There are direct items (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46, and 47) and inverse items (3, 8, 11, 16, 17, 20, 39, 41, 45, and 48). For direct items, the scoring indicated above is respected. In the case of inverse items, the scoring is altered; that is, never (5), rarely (4), I could not say (3), often (2), and always (1). The sum of each of the items generates the score for each scale and in general. The interpretation of the scores is direct; this means that the higher the score obtained from the test, the better the student’s self-concept. Each subscale has 8 items ranging from 5 to 1, so the maximum score for each one can range from 8 to 40.

2.3.3. Social Skills

These skills were evaluated using The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills in Youngsters (MESSY) by Matson et al. (1983), in its version for the Spanish population (Méndez et al., 2002). This questionnaire for students presents a four-step response format: never, sometimes, often, and always. The following five factors were considered: appropriate social skills (24 items). This factor evaluates behaviors such as having friends, emotional expressiveness, sharing, etc. Some examples of items are “I look at people when I talk to them” and “I turn to people and start a conversation”. Inappropriate assertiveness (16 items), which explores aggressive behaviors, mockery, or abuse of others. Some examples of items are “I take things that are not mine without permission” and “I hit when I am angry”. Impulsivity (5 items). Some examples of items are “I get angry easily” and “I interrupt others when they are speaking”. Overconfidence (6 items). This factor explores behaviors of overvaluation of the self. Some examples of items are “I like to brag to others about the things I have” and “I think I know everything”. Jealousy/loneliness (4 items), which explores behaviors such as feeling lonely or not having friends. Of the two versions of the MESSY (for teachers and students), only the version aimed at students was used in this research.

2.4. Intervention

The experimental group (EG) participated in a 12-week program that incorporated active gamification into physical activity, specifically designed for primary school children. The gamification strategy implemented in this program was designed to transform physical activity sessions into highly motivating and immersive experiences, integrating recreational and narrative elements such as (i) Immersive narratives: each phase was immersed in a progressive story, in which students not only performed isolated physical activities, but they “lived adventures” related to explorations, heroic missions, and challenges to protect a kingdom. (ii) Point and classifications system: students accumulated points in each session, which were used to classify equipment and strengthen motivation through symbolic rewards. (iii) Incremental challenges: physical activities were designed at levels of progressive difficulty to promote the development of skills such as teamwork, coordination, resistance, and strategy. (iv) Team dynamics: all activities encouraged cooperation and communication between students, promoting social skills together with physics. (v) Rewards and achievements: at the end of each phase and session, the participants celebrated their achievements through closing activities that consolidated learning and maintained enthusiasm. Compared to a traditional class, where exercises are usually functional and focused on individual physical skills, this gamified strategy integrated a holistic approach, using the game and narrative as pedagogical tools.

The program was divided into three thematic phases, each progressively increasing in difficulty and intensity over several sessions held three times a week (45 min) and structured in three parts: a 10 min warm-up with activities such as reaction games or small challenges to prepare students both mentally and physically, a 30 min main activity phase, and a 5 min closing phase dedicated to awarding points and updating team rankings (

Table A1. Active gamification program in physical activity.

	Week	Session	Main Objective	Description
Phase 1: Explorers in Action	1: Introduction to Exploration	1: Discovering Territory	Spatial awareness and collaboration	Teams of children had to run to a designated area, perform a physical task (e.g., hop on one foot, spin, or touch toes), and “claim” the area by placing a marker or flag. Points were awarded for each successfully claimed area.
		2: Explorers on the Path	Coordination and planning	Students used tools such as hoops or blocks as “bridges” to cross “rivers” (ropes on the ground). Teams worked together to move the bridges and cross without stepping in the “water”. If a mistake occurred, the team restarted.
		3: Movement Explorers	Agility and endurance	Students followed paths marked by footprints, completing tasks such as jumping or crouching to navigate the course.
	2: Coordination Challenges	1: Tower Challenge	Balance and teamwork	Teams transported materials (e.g., hoops, cones) while maintaining balance or navigating obstacles. Points were given for tower height and error-free transport.
		2: Team Explorers	Agility and cooperation	Teams navigated obstacles to collect “gems” (small objects) and return to their starting point.
		3: Explorer’s Race	Speed and endurance	A course that featured stations for jumping, zig-zag running, and carrying objects.
	3: Overcoming Challenges	1: “Explorer’s Maze”	Planning and teamwork	The children navigated arrow-marked mazes, avoiding restricted zones. Mistakes required a reset, with teammates offering guidance.
		2: Search for Lost Objects	Observation and agility	The teams followed clues to locate objects while overcoming physical challenges.
		3: River Bridges	Balance	The students crossed “rivers” using props, earning points for successful crossings.
	4: Explorer Consolidation	1: “Treasure Race”	Balance, agility, coordination, and speed	A course featuring tasks such as balancing a ball on a spoon and running in a zigzag pattern.
		2: Explorer Challenge	Problem solving, coordination, and creativity	Mini-games such as knocking down towers of blocks and solving puzzles.
		3: Treasure Party		Progress was celebrated with physical challenges and puzzles.
Phase 2: Movement Heroes	5: Hero Training	1: Hero’s Journey	Agility, speed, and Endurance	A dynamic circuit that challenges their adaptability and physical work in an active and self-improvement environment.
		2: leeping Dragon Challenge	Teamwork and cooperation	The teams transported objects quietly to avoid “waking up” the dragon.
		3: Fortress Defense	Coordination	Threw balls to knock down towers.
	6: Hero Week: Speed and Strategy Challenges	1: Dragon Race	Speed and accuracy	Students competed in a race where they had to collect “gems” (small objects) as they ran through a course.
		2: Kingdom Rescue	Teamwork	Teams worked together to transport large objects through an obstacle course.
		3: Kingdom Defense	Strategy	One team guarded a treasure while the other attempted to steal it.
	7: Advanced Collaboration Challenges	1: The Resource Mission	Coordination, teamwork and strategy	Teams had to coordinate to navigate a circuit and collect various scattered items.
		2: Protect the Fortress	Defense, teamwork, and resistance	Participants had to defend a base while completing a physical obstacle course.
		3: The Test of Heroes	Speed and precision	A relay-style challenge, in which students had to complete a series of physical tasks quickly
	8: The Final Challenge	1: The Last Battle for the Kingdom	Endurance, coordination, and resilience	Teams had to transport resources while overcoming a circuit full of obstacles.
		2: The Race Against the Dragon	Speed and planning	Participants competed in a race where students had to make quick decisions on how to manage their energy and movements to gain time and advance to the “dragon”.
		3: The Triumph of Heroes	Agility, cooperation, and strategy	A multi-zone circuit that integrates all the skills developed during the program. Students completed a series of tasks at different stations, consolidating learning and celebrating their achievements.
Phase 3: Health Guardians	9: Guardian Challenges	1: Protectors of the Fortress	Accuracy, coordination, and teamwork	Teams had to take down enemy towers using balls or throws.
		2: The Balance Test	Balance, strength, and cooperation	Students had to perform synchronized squats while holding a rope.
		3: The Guardian Race	Endurance, agility, and teamwork	A relay-style obstacle course, where participants had to complete a series of physical tests in turns.
	10: Guardian Missions	1: The Great Recovery	Speed, organization, and quick decision making	In this session, teams had to collect resources on a circuit with a time limit.
		2: Bridges of the Kingdom	Problem solving, creativity, and cooperation	Participants had to transport objects across a space without touching the ground.
		3: The Protective Shield	Teamwork, strength, and communication	Teams had to work together to move heavy objects and build a “shield” to protect their fortress.
	11: Preparing for the Final Battle	1: The Guardians’ Stand	Agility, speed, and strength	In this session, students performed circuit repetitions to improve their physical endurance.
		2: The Kingdom’s Strategy	Planning, creativity, and team decision making	Students had to plan and strategize to overcome a series of challenges.
		3: Final Defense Rehearsal	Cooperation, strategy, physical skills, and defense and attack tactics	This game simulated a final battle in which students must combine all the skills acquired during the program.
	12: The Final Battle	1: The Storming of the Towers	Strength, speed, and agility	Students had to overcome a series of physical obstacles while using team strategies to take down towers built by the opposing team.
		2: The Unbreakable Fortress	Solving problems of coordination, creativity, and teamwork	In this session, teams had to work together to build structures that serve as their “fortress.” Students had to will use materials (such as blocks or balls) to build and protect their fortress.
		3: The Guardians’ Crowning	Teamwork and the spirit of improvement	This final session celebrated students’ achievements throughout the program. Through a series of final activities, points were awarded to teams based on their performance and collaboration in previous games. At the end, a crowning ceremony was held.

, Appendix A).

2.5. Procedure

To recruit participants, a school in Jaén, Spain, was selected. A meeting was held with parents or legal guardians to provide details about the study’s purpose and procedures. During the meeting, attendees received an information leaflet and a consent form. Once the signed consent forms were collected, the students were allocated at random into two groups: the experimental group (EG), which participated in a gamified physical activity program, or the control group (CG), which continued with their usual Physical Education classes focused on achieving physical goals through functional or technical activities. The randomization process was conducted in a blinded manner for participants, teachers, and researchers. Opaque, sealed, and consecutively numbered envelopes were used for allocation and were opened by an individual independent of the study. In terms of instrument administration, all questionnaires were completed by participants at two points: before the intervention started and after it concluded. To maintain consistency in the gamified program’s delivery, teachers underwent a two-week training on the methodology before the program began. Teachers were assigned to the respective groups at the school and were closely monitored by the research team throughout the study to ensure uniformity across sessions. The intervention was conducted between 12:00 and 12:45 P.M. during the scheduled sessions.

2.6. Data Analysis

The means and standard deviations for the variables under investigation were calculated. Student’s t-test for independent samples was used to analyze group differences. A mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention. Group assignment (experimental vs. control) was considered the between-subjects factor, while the time of measurement (pre- and post-intervention) was the within-subjects factor. The dependent variables analyzed included concentration, attention, memory, and creativity, with appropriate tests applied to each. The interaction between group allocation and the timing of assessments was also evaluated. Effect sizes, calculated using Cohen’s d, were categorized into small (≤0.2), moderate (0.5), and large (0.8) effects. A significance level of p < 0.05 was used for all tests. For statistical analysis, SPSS software, version 17.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), was employed.

3. Results

Participants had a mean age of 6.67 ± 1.02 years, of which 52.40% were in the first year and 47.60% were in the second year of primary education (

Table 2. Preintervention sociodemographic and clinical profiles of the participants, both overall and by group.

		Total (n = 120)	Experimental (n = 60)	Control (n = 60)	p-Value
Age		9.40 ± 0.98	9.25 ± 0.93	9.55 ± 1.02	0.183
Sex	Boy	53 (44.20)	26 (49.10)	27 (50.90)	0.719
	Girl	67 (455.80)	34 (50.70)	33 (49.30)
Weight (kg)		30.08 ± 2.82	29.65 ± 2.73	30.51 ± 2.87	0.262
Height (m)		1.32 ± 0.04	1.32 ± 0.04	1.33 ± 0.03	0.523
BMI (kg/m2)		17.12 ± 0.78	17.01 ± 0.70	17.22 ± 0.84	0.165
Garley_ Physical Self-Concept		25.57 ± 4.75	25.77 ± 4.66	25.38 ± 4.87	0.632
Garley_Social Acceptance		23.85 ± 4.56	24.08 ± 5.01	23.62 ± 4.10	0.100
Garley_Family Self-Concept		22.99 ± 4.75	22.67 ± 5.66	23.32 ± 4.55	0.053
Garley_Intellectual Self-Concept		23.15 ± 5.07	22.50 ± 5.55	23.80 ± 4.49	0.058
Garley_Personal Self-Evaluation		24.77 ± 4.77	24.92 ± 5.26	24.62 ± 4.26	0.144
Garley_Sense of Control		23.10 ± 5.24	22.38 ± 5.61	23.82 ± 4.78	0.100
Self-esteem		36.16 ± 2.87	37.52 ± 2.81	34.80 ± 2.22	0.081
MESSY_Appropriate social skills		52.11 ± 10.08	52.47 ± 10.61	51.75 ± 9.60	0.459
MESSY_Inappropriate assertiveness		30.13 ± 3.68	29.73 ± 2.68	30.53 ± 4.44	0.235
MESSY_Impulsiveness		12.30 ± 0.90	12.60 ± 0.64	12.00 ± 1.03	0.626
MESSY_Overconfidence		9.66 ± 0.63	9.25 ± 0.44	10.07 ± 0.52	0.289
MESSY_Jealousy/loneliness		13.73 ± 1.24	13.70 ± 1.24	13.77 ± 1.25	0.950

The quantitative variables are expressed as the mean and standard deviation. Qualitative variables are shown as counts and percentages. BMI: Body Mass Index; MESSY: The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills in Youngsters.

).

3.1. Self-Concept

Significant differences were found in the physical self-concept between pre- and post-measurements for the training group (t(59) = −3.183, p = 0.002, Cohen’s d = 0.42). Furthermore, differences between the groups were significant at the post-intervention measurement (t(118) = −2.582, p = 0.011, Cohen’s d = 0.47). In terms of social acceptance, the training group showed significant differences between pre- and post-measurements (t(59) = −3.663, p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.45), with post-intervention differences between the two groups also being significant (t(118) = −2.627, p = 0.010, Cohen’s d = 0.48). The family self-concept also showed significant pre- and post-intervention changes within the training group (t(59) = −3.642, p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.46), with notable differences between groups at post-measurement (t(118) = −2.100, p = 0.042, Cohen’s d = 0.38) (Figure 2). Regarding the intellectual self-concept, the training group demonstrated significant improvements from pre- to post-measurement (t(59) = −3.931, p = 0.000, Cohen’s d = 0.41), and inter-group differences were significant at post-measurement (t(118) = −2.226, p = 0.028, Cohen’s d = 0.40). Significant changes were also observed in the personal self-evaluation for the training group (t(59) = −3.097, p = 0.003, Cohen’s d = 0.41), and differences between groups at post-intervention were significant (t(118) = −2.190, p = 0.031, Cohen’s d = 0.40). Lastly, in terms of the sense of control, significant differences were found between pre- and post-measurements for the training group (t(59) = −7.039, p = 0.000, Cohen’s d = 0.69), with post-measurement differences between groups being statistically significant (t(118) = −2.179, p = 0.031, Cohen’s d = 0.40) (Figure 3) (

Table 3. Effects of gamification on self-esteem, self-concept, and social skills.

	EG (n = 60)		CG (n = 60)		Group			Time			Group × Time
	Pre	Post	Pre	Post	F(118)	p-Value	η2	F(118)	p-Value	η2	F(118)	p-Value	η2
Garley_ Physical Self-Concept	25.77 ± 4.66	27.85 ± 5.31	25.38 ± 4.87	25.52 ± 4.56	2.750	0.100	0.023	10.635	0.001	0.083	8.230	0.005	0.065
Garley_Social Acceptance	24.08 ± 5.01	26.58 ± 6.00	23.62 ± 4.10	24.08 ± 4.28	3.354	0.070	0.028	15.095	0.000	0.113	7.091	0.009	0.057
Garley_Family Self-Concept	22.67 ± 5.66	25.38 ± 6.15	23.32 ± 4.55	23.28 ± 4.97	0.709	0.401	0.006	8.641	0.004	0.068	8.227	0.005	0.065
Garley_Intellectual Self-Concept	22.50 ± 5.55	25.12 ± 5.16	23.80 ± 4.49	23.28 ± 3.75	0.117	0.733	0.001	7.112	0.009	0.057	15.832	0.000	0.118
Garley_Personal Self-Evaluation	24.92 ± 5.26	27.25 ± 6.20	24.62 ± 4.26	25.07 ± 4.61	2.301	0.132	0.019	9.271	0.003	0.073	4.245	0.042	0.035
Garley_Sense of Control	22.38 ± 5.61	26.33 ± 5.81	23.82 ± 4.78	24.22 ± 4.78	0.144	0.705	0.001	42.632	0.000	0.265	28.393	0.000	0.194
Self-esteem	37.52 ± 2.81	38.85 ± 3.09	34.80 ± 2.22	34.93 ± 1.72	66.804	0.000	0.361	7.815	0.006	0.062	11.675	0.001	0.090
MESSY_Appropriate social skills	52.47 ± 10.61	49.50 ± 8.51	51.75 ± 9.60	52.62 ± 8.11	0.551	0.460	0.005	4.532	0.035	0.037	15.100	0.000	0.113
MESSY_Inappropriate assertiveness	29.73 ± 2.68	28.73 ± 4.19	29.73 ± 2.68	31.40 ± 3.99	7.593	0.007	0.060	0.041	0.840	0.000	8.057	0.005	0.064
MESSY_Impulsiveness	12.60 ± 0.64	13.32 ± 1.41	12.00 ± 1.03	11.47 ± 2.42	40.129	0.000	0.254	0.210	0.648	0.002	9.753	0.002	0.076
MESSY_Overconfidence	9.25 ± 0.44	8.40 ± 1.92	10.07 ± 0.52	10.42 ± 1.62	72.379	0.000	0.380	2.173	0.143	0.018	12.516	0.001	0.096
MESSY_Jealousy/loneliness	13.70 ± 1.24	14.78 ± 1.14	13.77 ± 1.25	15.30 ± 0.59	4.143	0.044	0.034	89.932	0.000	0.433	2.660	0.106	0.022

Quantitative variables are presented as mean and standard deviation. EG: experimental group. CG: control group. MESSY: The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills in Youngsters.

).

3.2. Self-Esteem

In terms of self-esteem, significant differences were observed between pre- and post-measurements for the training group (t(59) = −3.280, p = 0.002, Cohen’s d = 0.45). Additionally, there were significant differences between both groups at the post-intervention measurement (t(118) = −8.593, p = 0.000, Cohen’s d = 1.57) (Figure 4) (Table 2).

3.3. Social Skills

For appropriate social skills, significant differences were found between pre- and post-measurements in the training group (t(59) = 3.684, p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.31), and between both groups at the post-intervention measurement (t(118) = 2.053, p = 0.042, Cohen’s d = 0.38). In the case of inappropriate assertiveness, the training group showed significant differences between pre- and post-measurements (t(59) = 2.184, p = 0.033, Cohen’s d = 0.28), and there were also significant differences between the two groups at post-intervention (t(118) = 3.567, p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.65). Regarding impulsiveness, the training group exhibited significant changes from pre- to post-measurements (t(59) = −3.576, p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.66), and significant differences were observed between the groups at post-intervention (t(118) = −5.121, p = 0.000, Cohen’s d = 0.93) (Figure 5). In terms of overconfidence, significant differences were found in the training group between pre- and post-measurements (t(59) = 3.214, p = 0.002, Cohen’s d = 0.61), and inter-group differences were significant at post-intervention (t(118) = 6.213, p = 0.000, Cohen’s d = 1.14). Lastly, no significant differences were found in jealousy/loneliness (Figure 6) (Table 2).

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to analyze the effects of active gamification on the emotional well-being and social skills of primary school students. The findings of this study revealed that the group that carried out the gamification intervention had beneficial effects on self-concept and self-esteem. In addition, improvements were found in all social skill subdomains, except for the jealousy/loneliness subdomain. The development of emotional and social competencies in the primary education stage constitutes an area of growing interest in the fields of educational psychology and pedagogy (Muñoz-Oliver et al., 2022). These competencies, which include the ability to manage emotions, establish healthy interpersonal relationships, and build a positive self-image, are fundamental for children’s comprehensive well-being and their long-term success in different contexts (Speidel et al., 2023).

Self-esteem is fundamental for the psychological well-being and social development of children, as it influences their ability to face challenges and build healthy relationships (Casino-García et al., 2021). Physical activity plays a crucial role in the development of self-esteem in children and adolescents. Studies have shown that greater participation in physical activities is associated with higher levels of self-esteem, such as the study by Lizarazo-López et al. (2020), who found that approximately 50% of schoolchildren had low levels of self-esteem, which is attributable to their low participation in physical activities; in contrast, those with greater involvement in such activities showed significantly higher self-esteem. In this study, the experimental group (EG) demonstrated a notable improvement in self-esteem levels following the intervention (p = 0.002), compared to the control group (CG), where no relevant changes were observed (p = 0.000). This suggests that the gamification-based program had a positive impact on the participants’ perception of personal value. Improvements in self-concept may be explained by the integration of physical challenges that offered children the opportunity to overcome attainable goals, which strengthened their confidence in their physical abilities. This finding highlights the importance of creating environments that allow students to experience tangible achievements, which, in turn, improves their self-esteem. In addition, group activities may have promoted a mutually supportive environment, which, according to Weiss et al. (2013), is a key factor for the development of self-esteem.

Self-concept, which includes dimensions such as physical, social, family, intellectual, personal, and sense of control (Putnick et al., 2020), showed significant improvements in the EG after the intervention. For example, physical self-concept increased significantly compared to the CG (p = 0.005), while dimensions such as social and family self-concept also showed significant differences (p = 0.009 and p = 0.005, respectively). These results are aligned with the findings of Haugen (2011), who found that physical activity-based interventions especially improve physical and social self-concept, as they allow children to experience concrete achievements and strengthen their interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, Marsh et al. (2010) noted that programs designed to foster collaboration and group problem solving have a positive impact on multiple dimensions of self-concept. In this study, the increase in physical self-concept could be explained by the dynamics that integrated achievable physical challenges, which allowed children to feel more competent in this area. On the other hand, the strengthening of social self-concept can be attributed to the constant interaction with peers during activities, since children who had the opportunity to collaborate and solve problems as a team probably experienced a greater sense of belonging, which allowed them to improve their social self-concept, an aspect also highlighted by Hjetland et al. (2022) as crucial for improving social skills and sense of belonging.

Social skills are a set of behaviors and abilities that allow people to interact effectively and appropriately in different social contexts (Maleki et al., 2019). These include skills such as communication, empathy, cooperation, and conflict resolution and are essential for establishing healthy interpersonal relationships and adapting to the social environment. In the educational field, social skills play a crucial role in the comprehensive development of students, as they foster a positive climate of coexistence and improve collaborative learning (Scager et al., 2016). In the present study, the results showed significant improvements in appropriate social skills of the experimental group (EG) after the intervention (p = 0.001). In addition, a reduction in inappropriate assertiveness behaviors was observed (p = 0.033), reflecting the impact of these activities on the development of fundamental social skills for group coexistence and adaptation to the school environment. However, no significant differences were found in dimensions such as jealousy or loneliness, suggesting that these areas might require a more specific approach or a longer intervention time. These results align with the findings of previous studies that have asserted that physical education should become a method for students to recognize and interact with people in a healthy way, acquiring social skills that allow them to function adequately in society (Carbonell-Ventura et al., 2018). The observed improvement in appropriate social skills and reduction in inappropriate behaviors in this study can be explained by the design of the gamification program, which included dynamics that required teamwork, effective communication, and group problem solving. These activities not only provided opportunities to practice social skills but also reinforced values such as cooperation and mutual respect. On the other hand, the lack of significant changes in dimensions such as jealousy and loneliness could be attributed to the specific nature of the activities implemented, which perhaps did not directly address these emotional aspects, so it would be necessary to include activities aimed at promoting social inclusion and reducing perceived isolation, such as dynamics that promote emotional support among peers. Another relevant study is that of Estabrooks and Harden (2012), who emphasized that group dynamics in physical activities promote peer interaction and help children develop a sense of belonging, which is essential for their emotional and social well-being. In particular, programs that integrate collaborative components, such as those used in this study, seem to be more effective in fostering positive social skills compared to more competitive approaches.

This study provides a solid foundation for future research aimed at optimizing gamified methodologies in educational contexts, as well as examining their impact on various cognitive, physical, and psychosocial variables. However, it has some limitations, such as (i) the lack of evaluation of participants’ satisfaction with the applied intervention; (ii) the absence of an analysis of the long-term effects, which could reveal additional benefits and/or ensure the consolidation of the results obtained; and (iii) the sample does not include children with intellectual disabilities, which would be interesting to consider in future studies.

5. Conclusions

The primary education stage represents a unique window of opportunity to promote the development of emotional and social skills in children, since during this period, key competencies such as self-concept, self-esteem, and social skills are consolidated. Active gamification, by combining the benefits of physical exercise with motivating elements of play, not only encourages children’s participation and commitment but also creates a safe and dynamic environment where they can experiment, learn, and practice these skills in a meaningful way. This strategy is positioned as a comprehensive tool to address emotional and social needs, promoting balanced development and preparing them to face life’s challenges with greater resilience and confidence.