Integrating Coastal Sámi Traditional Knowledge in Science Education: Challenges, Approaches, and the Path Forward

Abstract

This study explores the integration of Sámi traditional knowledge in Norwegian science education, addressing the challenges that are faced by teachers who are unfamiliar with Sámi culture. The research employs action research methods, involving student teachers and teacher educators, to develop teaching units focused on Coastal Sámi topics. The study highlights the use of Banks’s multicultural curriculum reform approaches to analyze how Indigenous perspectives were incorporated. The key findings reveal that while efforts were made to include Coastal Sámi concepts, the integration often remained superficial. This study underscores the need for comprehensive teacher training and resources to effectively teach Indigenous topics. The conclusions emphasize the importance of a transformative approach to education that authentically incorporates diverse perspectives, advocating for systemic support to enhance teachers’ ability to deliver culturally relevant education. The research calls for collaboration among policymakers, teacher educators, and the Sámi community to ensure meaningful integration of Indigenous knowledge in curricula, fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of Sámi culture and sustainability practices.

1. Introduction

During the latter half of the 20th century, the educational policies in Norway regarding teaching about Sámi topics have undergone radical changes (Olsen et al., 2017). Currently, we are witnessing a Sámi revitalization, where school and educational policies have been and remain central to strengthening the Sámi language and society. This stands in stark contrast to the Norwegianization policy that was implemented from the 18th century. After more than a hundred years of intense Norwegianization that aimed to assimilate the Sámi people into Norwegian society, both their language and their cultural identity have been marginalized (Sannhets- og Forsoningskommisjonen, 2023).

Both the Education Act and Norwegian national curriculum stipulate that teaching in schools should include knowledge and training about the Sámi (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017; Opplæringslova, 2023). Thus, teachers who previously lacked knowledge and familiarity with the Sámi are now expected to acquire it (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020). However, whilst a shift can be recognized, many teachers in Norway lack knowledge about Sámi history and society (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020; Evju & Olsen, 2022; Holand & Haugan, 2024), and there is limited research focusing on school practices relating to the teaching of Sámi topics in Norway (Holand & Haugan, 2024). This underscores the crucial role of teacher education programs, which are responsible for both demonstrating how to engage in Indigenous education (Keskitalo & Olsen, 2021) and preparing teachers to implement similar practices in their own classrooms (Madden, 2015; Mattila et al., 2023).

1.1. Diversity Within the Sámi Community

The Sámi are a heterogenous group of people who inhabit northern Scandinavia and the Kola Peninsula in Russia (Evjen et al., 2021). In Sweden and Finland, the Sámi populations are about 15,000 and 10,000 respectively, while in Russia, there are around 5000 Sámi (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020). However, the majority of the Sámi population lives in Norway, with approximately 50,000 individuals. In Norway, there are six Sámi languages and a variety of cultural expressions within those languages (Sannhets- og Forsoningskommisjonen, 2023). Historically, language, region, and lifestyle have been utilized to distinguish different Sámi groups (Sannhets- og Forsoningskommisjonen, 2023). According to Minde (2021), the majority of Sámi in Norway are identified as Coastal Sámi, a term that underscores their cultural and commercial ties to coastal and fjord landscapes, distinguishing them from the Inland Sámi populations.

The Coastal Sámi, while sharing similarities with the coastal fishing and farming population, possess a distinct history, culture, and tradition. Despite adapting to modern times, fishing and small-scale farming remain central to their identity (Høgmo, 1986). The Coastal Sámi and the majority of Norwegian society coexisted up to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when the relationship between the Sámi and Norwegians grew increasingly unequal, ultimately leading to the implementation of the Norwegianization policy from 1859 to 1950 (Sollid & Olsen, 2019). This policy aimed to assimilate the Sámi into Norwegian culture, notably through education, where speaking Sámi was prohibited (Olsen, 2020). The Norwegianization process not only suppressed Sámi language and culture but also created feelings of shame and alienation among many Coastal Sámi, leading them to distance themselves from their heritage (Høgmo, 1986; Minde, 2021). Additionally, the end of World War II saw significant destruction in North Troms and Finnmark, with 50–90% of buildings being destroyed, further erasing Sámi material culture. In the villages where people had previously been Sámi speakers, they returned as Norwegian speakers after the war (Høgmo, 1986; Nergård, 2019). Today, individual Sámi families can often identify as both Sámi and Norwegian (Stenseth, 2023). However, since the 1980s, policies have shifted towards promoting Sámi rights and culture, and younger generations are reclaiming their Sámi heritage, learning the language, engaging in traditional crafts, and expressing pride in their identity (Sollid & Olsen, 2019).

1.2. Teaching About Indigenous Topics

All Norwegian teacher institutions and schools bear the responsibility for preserving knowledge about Sámi culture, history, and social life, regardless of their location or the backgrounds of their students (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020). Indigenous education can involve everything from the education of students from Indigenous communities to teaching about Indigenous themes for students in the majority (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020; Sollid & Olsen, 2019). However, while the Sámi community exhibits diversity, curricula and textbooks predominantly highlight the culture of the Inland Sámi. Research conducted in Norway indicates that textbook portrayals of Sámi often have stereotypical representation rather than promoting an understanding of the diverse lifestyles (Eriksen & Svendsen, 2020; Murray & Bakken, 2024; Olsen, 2017). In schools, examples from Inland Sámi culture are frequently emphasized, often featuring well-known symbols such as lavvus and reindeer herding (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020). However, it is important to note that only 10% of the Sámi population are reindeer herders, while the majority identify as Coastal Sámi (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020; Heim & Bergan, 2024).

Murray and Bakken (2024) emphasized the importance of teacher training to help identify and address gaps and biases in textbook representations of Indigenous groups. This aligns with Andreassen and Olsen’s (2020) assertion that a central focus of Indigenous education should be on critical examinations of perspectives and rights. Such critical reflection is particularly important when distinguishing between Indigenous education that is for and by Indigenous peoples and Indigenous education for all about Indigenous peoples (Sollid & Olsen, 2019). The prepositions are instrumental in this distinction. This applies to both the practical aspects of teaching, as well as who the teacher is and the perspectives that they take (Andreassen & Olsen, 2020).

1.3. Traditional Knowledge and Sustainability

In recent decades, Indigenous peoples have increasingly advocated for the recognition of their traditional knowledge regarding sustainable land management and cultural revitalization (Keskitalo, 2023; Nilsson Dahlström et al., 2021). They are recognized as pioneers in sustainable development practices, and this perspective is supported in international frameworks such as the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) (Barton et al., 2022). Traditional knowledge in the North Sámi language is called árbediehtu (inherited knowledge), and Porsanger and Guttorm (2011) defined this term in the following way: Árbediehtu is the collective wisdom and skills of the Sámi people, used to enhance their livelihood for centuries. It has been passed down from generation to generation both orally and through work and practical experience. Through this continuity, the concept of árbediehtu ties the past, present, and future together.

The traditional Sámi understanding of nature emphasizes the importance of those who harvest from it, whilst recognizing its limits and ensuring sustainability (Nergård, 2019). Taking a holistic view of nature aligns with the emphasis that is placed on the intrinsic value of nature, independently of human influence. This perspective is highlighted in both the latest IPBES report and in the Norwegian curriculum for natural science (Barton et al., 2022; Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2019). In relation to nature’s intrinsic value and sustainable management, Sámi culture and identity are emphasized in the curriculum for natural science, with traditional knowledge being recognized as a valuable tool for the sustainable exploitation and protection of nature (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2019). Traditional knowledge is intrinsically linked to specific locations and ecosystems, necessitating a land-based pedagogical approach (Bang et al., 2014; Keskitalo, 2023). In this context, a land-based pedagogical approach naturally integrates concepts like land, nature, place, environment, and culture, which are often segregated and compartmentalized in Western perspectives (Bang et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2023).

1.4. Bridging Indigenous and Western Perspectives in Multicultural Curriculum Development

It has been suggested that teachers often move through a range of practical approaches when integrating and utilizing traditional knowledge, such as Banks’s (2016) four-level approaches for multicultural curricula (Murray, 2022). The first approach, The Contributions Approach, focuses on discrete cultural elements in teaching (Banks, 2016). Such cultural elements include artifacts from the cultural group, but without discussion about the importance or significance of these elements. Today, Sámi content is often connected to a single event, such as on the Sámi national day; however, it can also be seen in larger interdisciplinary projects (Evju & Olsen, 2022). Banks (2016) highlighted several weaknesses in using discrete cultural elements as the only means in the integration of multicultural content. For example, when the decisions about what is to be included are taken by the majority society, there is a risk that the selection is not made according to the principles of the Indigenous community (Banks, 2016).

The second approach, The Additive Approach, deals with adding content and perspectives to the curriculum without changing its structure. This is often referred to as a first step in attempts to restructure the curriculum. Banks (2016), nevertheless, took a critical look at this approach, as it most often results in viewing cultural content through the perspectives of the majority society.

The third, The Transformative Approach, stands out from the previous approaches. It implies that the structure of the curriculum is changed so that students are able to see different concepts, issues, events, and themes from multiple cultural and Indigenous perspectives (Banks, 2016). Banks (2016) emphasized that it is neither possible nor desirable to be able to see everything from the perspective of all cultural and Indigenous groups. Rather, the goal should be to enable students to appreciate multiple perspectives, particularly that of the groups that are most affected by what is taught in the classroom (Banks, 2016). The purpose of integrating different perspectives and content from several groups of people in the curriculum and teaching is, according to Banks (2016), to be able to expand students’ understanding of the development and complexity of society.

Finally, The Social Approach incorporates the same elements as The Transformative Approach but also requires students to make decisions and actions related to the concept, issue, or problem that is being taught (Banks, 2016). The goal is for the students to become socially critical and active participants in social change.

Banks’s framework (Banks, 2016) is frequently evident in educational settings. Another approach, two-eyed seeing, refers to “learning to see from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing, and from the other eye with the strengths of Western knowledges and ways of knowing, and to using both these eyes together, for the benefit of all” (Bartlett et al., 2012, p. 335). Such an approach attempts to integrate Indigenous and Western perspectives: for example, enabling educators and students to explore the interplay between traditional knowledge and sustainable management practices (Seehawer & Breidlid, 2021). Although these frameworks can be combined to enhance educational experiences, progression from one level to another is gradual, and educators may not immediately reach the highest level of integration (Banks, 2016). Moreover, given the complexity of this work, it is unrealistic to expect that it would be easy. It is therefore crucial for us all to learn from and share mistakes in order to prevent their recurrence (Stein et al., 2024).

1.5. Aim of the Study

Teacher education programs play a crucial role in affecting change. We therefore wanted to bring together the expertise of teachers, student teachers, and teacher educators to focus on teaching Indigenous topics relating to sustainability. Our research question was as follows: what challenges do teachers without specific ties to Sámi culture and tradition encounter when teaching science in lower secondary school with a focus on Sámi traditional knowledge? Recognizing that all participants had limited experience with Sámi knowledge, culture, and tradition, we aimed to enhance our collective understanding and investigate the challenges that are faced in teaching these topics through a collaborative action research project.

2. Materials and Methods

The participants in this project were student teachers and teacher educators. The project began with an educational visit to New Zealand, where we engaged with Indigenous teachers, scholars, and Māori student teachers. Each person wrote reflective notes following every meeting. Upon returning home, the Norwegian authors resolved to develop a teaching unit focused on Coastal Sámi topics, which served as the master’s thesis for the student teachers. The teaching unit was structured around the following question: what challenges do teachers without specific ties to Sámi culture and tradition encounter when teaching science in lower secondary school with a focus on Sámi traditional knowledge? Action research methods were employed to address the research question, enabling changes to be implemented throughout the project, which was essential for examining and enhancing teaching practice (Cohen et al., 2018). The final step involved analyzing the development and evaluation of the teaching unit and comparing this process with our initial reflections.

2.1. Situating Ourselves in the Study

AUTHOR 1 (student teacher): I have always known about my Sámi heritage on my mother’s side, although I have never reflected upon the importance of it. Both my grandparents spoke the Sámi language, but because of Norwegianization, we lost the language in our family. Working on the master’s thesis has deepened my understanding of the importance of preserving, honoring, and transmitting Sámi culture, language, and knowledge.

AUTHOR 2 (student teacher): I am a non-Indigenous teacher. Before working on our master’s thesis, I had never really reflected upon my heritage and my identity. However, through this work, I gained new insights into the importance of both celebrating and being aware of your own heritage. I have now been given numerous opportunities to reflect on how we as teachers can (and cannot) teach Indigenous knowledge, and why it is of great importance.

AUTHOR 3 (teacher educator): I started my career as a teacher educator in mathematics didactics. After that, I worked as a mathematics and science teacher in a lower secondary school. Since June 2023, I have held the position of principal at the same school. This project sparked an interest in investigating my own heritage. I was aware that I had both Norwegian and Kvensk descent. I have now discovered that I also have some Sámi descent. I consider myself deeply connected to the north, and the mixture of three different cultures: Norwegian, Finnish, and Sámi. However, due to the Norwegianization process, I only speak Norwegian.

AUTHOR 4 (teacher educator): I am a New Zealand tertiary educator and researcher of European descent, who began my career as a primary school teacher during a time when Indigenous knowledge was not a strong feature of teaching and learning in New Zealand. As the focus on Mātauranga Māori (Indigenous way of knowing) has grown in New Zealand, I have been on my own journey of understanding. Working with this project has provided an important opportunity for me to reflect on who I am as a teacher and global citizen.

AUTHOR 5 (teacher educator): I began my academic career as an ecologist. In 2016, I started working as a teacher educator. My interest in teaching Indigenous topics in science was ignited by this collaborative project. During this work, I discovered that my grandfather spoke Sámi, Norwegian, and Kvensk, and I, like many northern Norwegians, am a blend of these three cultures. However, the Norwegianization policy led to the loss of two of these languages in my family.

Each author of this article played a distinct role in the study. AUTHOR 1 and AUTHOR 2, final-year student teachers, chose the research question for their joint master’s thesis. AUTHOR 3 and AUTHOR 5 brought their experience as teachers and guides to the study; AUTHOR 5 as a university-based scientist and teacher and AUTHOR 3 as a school-based science teacher and mentor of student teacher practice. AUTHOR 4 brought an understanding of what it is to be a teacher and mentor of student teacher practice. Whilst we are all teachers, in this paper, we refer to AUTHOR 1 and AUTHOR 2 as “teacher”, indicating the distinctive work that they did when undertaking their cycles of planning, implementation, and evaluation together. We commonly use the terms “we”, “us”, and “our” when referring to all five authors of this article, in order to indicate our shared reflection and learning throughout the study.

We worked with the curriculum objective to “provide examples of the Sámi people’s traditional knowledge of nature and discuss how this knowledge can contribute to sustainable management of nature” (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2019). To understand Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge and its application in educational planning, we conducted three semi-structured interviews with people who had either knowledge and experience of Sámi traditional knowledge or practice in teaching with a Sámi curriculum in a Coastal Sámi district. The interviews aimed to capture the informants’ experiences with traditional knowledge in daily and educational contexts. The informants provided insights into specific topics and traditions for our teaching focus, along with their perceptions of traditional knowledge.

Feedback from these initial interviews highlighted the importance of using concrete examples of Sámi traditional knowledge in teaching. For example, one person recommended focusing on the utilization and preservation of nature, reflecting the self-sufficiency principles that are prevalent in Sámi culture, a key element in Sámi culture and an inherent way of life (Nergård, 2019). We aimed to integrate Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge on environmental stewardship with Western sustainability perspectives (Bartlett et al., 2012). We intended to explore the ocean as a resource within the framework of Sustainable Development Goal No. 14, which focuses on “conserving and utilizing the oceans and marine resources for sustainable development” (United Nations, 2024). Our intervention approach involved examining Coastal Sámi traditional fishing practices in connection to sustainable management. We aimed to conduct our teaching as if addressing a multicultural community, considering that the students could be Norwegian, Sámi, or both. Following each intervention, AUTHOR 1, AUTHOR 2, and AUTHOR 3 conducted systematic oral evaluations (Cohen et al., 2018). The finished teaching session was discussed, including any immediate thoughts. These evaluations, grounded in shared experiences and aligned with the action’s objectives, guided modifications for subsequent interventions. This process was a crucial part of the action research cycle and proved useful in evaluating how challenges of incorporating Sámi traditional knowledge could be addressed. The different interventions and evaluations are shown in Figure 1.

The students in the selected class were in the eighth grade (13 to 14 years old) at a district school in Troms, Northern Norway. The class consisted of 25 students: 10 girls and 15 boys. The study adhered to the ethical standards set by the National Committee for Research Ethics (National Committee for Research Ethics, 2016), approval number SIKT Reg.nr. 956898.

2.2. Interventions

The teachers worked together and took turns teaching the students. The interventions aimed to enhance students’ understanding of sustainable development by integrating Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge with contemporary practices, emphasizing respect for nature and sustainable resource use. Through structured lessons and activities, students explored the interplay between traditional Sámi concepts and Western sustainability goals. The intention was to foster a comprehensive educational experience that bridged Indigenous and Western perspectives. Each lesson lasted between 60 and 90 min.

The first intervention consisted of two lessons. Firstly, students engaged with the concepts of natural resources and sustainable development, focusing on the ocean. To anchor the teaching locally, students created mind maps to explore potential uses for the marine environment adjacent to the school. A PowerPoint presentation clarified the concepts of natural resources, sustainable development, and “the ocean as a resource”. Secondly, students prepared and presented speeches focused on their personal identity and origins. Students were instructed to discuss their ancestors, parents/guardians, themselves, and their personal connections to their environment. The next intervention utilized photographs to help the students connect with historical aspects. This activity was focused on creating wall newspapers that illustrated the lifestyle, diet, and culture of the Coastal Sámi around 1920.

The third intervention aimed to connect traditional Coastal Sámi knowledge with contemporary national sustainable management practices. It began with a PowerPoint presentation on Coastal Sámi culture and traditional knowledge. Traditional knowledge holds significant value for the Sámi, as it intertwines with both their language and culture, particularly in its detailed descriptions of nature and animals (Guttorm, 2011). Sámi culture emphasizes respect for nature, advocating for permission not necessarily due to substantial impacts on the environment but out of reverence for nature itself (Mulder, 2021). Two Sámi concepts, birget and bivdit, were introduced. These concepts, as outlined by Mulder (2021), emphasize respect for nature and sustainable resource use. We aimed to connect these concepts to fishing and sustainable management. Birget translates in English to a person who survives and thrives in their environments, while bivdit encompasses hunting, fishing, and the act of requesting or asking for something (Mulder, 2021). Students then explored modern Coastal Sámi life, attempting to assume expert roles about various topics such as fishing quotas, traditional and modern fishing methods, and the application of UN Sustainable Development Goal No. 14 (United Nations, 2024).

The final intervention focused on traditional Sámi food preservation methods such as smoking, curing, and salting, which reflect the self-sufficiency principles that are prevalent in Sami culture, as well as the concept of utilizing the entire animal. Students analyzed these methods through videos and articles, which facilitated individual and collective learning experiences. Overall, these interventions were designed to provide a comprehensive educational experience that connected students with the Coastal Sámi culture and broader environmental issues through interactive and reflective learning activities.

2.3. Evaluation

The evaluations of the educational interventions revealed mixed outcomes and areas for improvement. Students enjoyed delivering speeches, but there was insufficient time to integrate these speeches into further work. During the reflection conversation, we concurred that the sessions predominantly reflected a Western perspective on the ocean and sustainable development, whereas we wanted to achieve more balance. Reflections post-session indicated a need to clarify facts about the Coastal Sámi, as students struggled to connect local fishermen with the Coastal Sámi identity. This led to a decision to discuss the historical context of the Coastal Sámi in more depth in subsequent sessions. It was observed that while students engaged well with the tasks, they made limited use of the introduced Sámi concepts. We admitted to limited knowledge of the Sámi language and culture, which reduced students’ hesitation to attempt pronunciation, fostering a more collaborative learning environment. However, it was noted that there should have been more active facilitation in using Sámi concepts during sessions by incorporating them into class assignments. In later sessions, students did start to assimilate examples of Sámi traditional knowledge, increasingly, but inconsistently, applying this knowledge in their responses. This progression underscored the importance of continuous learning and adaptation in teaching methods to enhance educational outcomes.

2.4. Data Collection

In addition to the reflection notes from New Zealand, we documented and evaluated the actions that were implemented. We observed throughout each teaching session. The observation was semi-structured, with open categories being defined for what was to be observed (Creswell & Guetterman, 2021). The open categories largely dealt with how Sámi traditional knowledge was integrated during the course of the teaching sequence. In addition, we collected audio recordings of both the students’ group discussion during the lessons and the systematic oral evaluations after each intervention.

2.5. Data Analysis

We employed thematic analysis for our data (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Clarke & Braun, 2013). By the end of data collection, we had compiled observation notes and audio recordings from teaching sessions and reflection conversations, together with reflection notes that were written before the teaching started. We transcribed all the content from the audio recordings, noting any indecipherable sections in the text. The analyses were conducted in two steps. First, all the data from each of the interventions were coded by the teachers. Secondly, the reflection notes that all authors wrote before the action cycle began were coded by the teacher educators. In the first instance, an abductive approach was used to analyze the intervention documents and link theory with our data (Timmermans & Tavory, 2012), while the second step involved a deductive analysis of the entire project within the framework of Banks (2016). After individual coding, a common code was assigned to each data excerpt. Codes that were irrelevant to the research questions were removed at this stage. Subsequently, the data were organized into potential themes. For example, codes from various interventions that pertained to pronoun use, which suggested both inclusion and exclusion, were consolidated under the topic of pronoun usage. Different aspects of the teaching and reflection were categorized using Banks’s four teaching approaches (Banks, 2016).

3. Results

3.1. Results from the Interventions

Teaching about Coastal Sámi topics required an understanding of their cultural and historical context, as well as the ability to effectively integrate this knowledge into existing educational frameworks. Our analysis of the interventions identified four themes, which are listed in

Table 1. The topics with examples of codes and associated excerpts from the data material from the action cycles.

Theme	Code	Excerpts from the Data Material
Use of pronouns	Use of pronouns that do not express belonging	From observations: Student 1: “What did they do, how did they live?” Student 2: “I think the real Sámi lived in real houses”
	Use pronouns that express belonging	From observations: Teacher 2: “We along the coast” Teacher 2: “Us here in the north”
Identification of the distinctive character of the Coastal Sámi	Unclear to the students what Coastal Sámi are	Audio recording from reflection conversation: Teacher 1: “I sat down and talked a bit with one of the groups. They thought it was difficult to find out (about Sámi traditional hunting methods), so I said that there is little about it. Then a student asked why they had to learn about it when there is so little about it. Also, I kind of didn’t have time to answer before a new question came, so I couldn’t deal with it. They also started asking what the other people who lived along the coast were fishing. Then I tried to explain that they lived in an interaction, and that they did pretty much the same thing along the coast”.
	Difficulty finding information about Coastal Sámi traditions	Audio recording from the teaching: Student: It was very difficult to figure out what they were using and such. The Coastal Sámi mostly used equipment such as cheats, lines and nets to fish for herring. They used a drag net, and they used a (indistinct) boat. Ehh, right now, like 2023, we humans use fishing rods, nets on boats, or on the coast.
	Students trying to distinguish between Coastal Sámi and others who lived along the coast	Audio recording from the lesson: Student 1: “But wait a minute, wait a minute, what is the difference between Coastal Sámi fishing or whatever they call it and normal fishing?” Teacher 1: “That’s the thing about those who lived along the coast, it was all people really. There were both Coastal Sámi, Norwegians and Kvens[people with Finnish descent]”. Student 2: “Didn’t they use the same equipment when they almost lived together?” Teacher 1: “They mostly did. They used more or less the same equipment. Actually. It was what was in a way common in the past to use. [..]”. Student 1: “So, essentially, they were all just fishermen, the Coastal Sámi”.
Focus on the past	Talking about the Sámi as people of the past	Audio recording from reflection conversation: Teacher 2: “ Next time, we need to consider how to present Sámi traditional knowledge as relevant today, since our discussions often focus on the past”.
The importance of local anchoring	Teacher situating both herself and the students within the local area	Audio recording from the lesson: Teacher 2: “Us here in the north”

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3.1.1. Use of Pronouns

Throughout the teaching sessions, we observed that the teacher on several occasions used pronouns expressing belonging in both class discussions and individual conversations. This involved pronouns like “we” and “us”, as illustrated in the following examples from our data:

Teacher 2:

“Let us start from the north where we live”.

By using these pronouns, the teacher aimed to emphasize regional affiliation in the teaching context. However, consistent use of these pronouns was not maintained throughout the action research project. In a dialogue between the teacher and a student, the pronoun usage shifted, distancing both the teacher and the students from the Coastal Sámi:

Teacher 1:

“Do you think there are many Coastal Sámi fishing today?”

Student:

“Yes, for Coastal Sámi, fishing is one of the best ways they obtain food”.

Teacher 1:

“Yes, but nowadays most Coastal Sámi are like us, perhaps”.

The use of the pronouns “they” and “us” suggests in the conversation that the teacher and student are distancing themself from the Coastal Sámi. The conversation reveals that the teacher was unaware of her pronoun usage and how it positioned herself and the students relative to the Coastal Sámi. Nevertheless, the excerpt suggests that the teacher intended to convey that coastal people, including the Coastal Sámi, coexist within the same society. Additionally, we noted that the students avoided pronouns that express belonging or community in their discussions, consistently referring to the Coastal Sámi as “they” or “them”.

3.1.2. Identification of the Distinctive Character of the Coastal Sámi

During discussions on Coastal Sámi’s traditional knowledge, students frequently inquired about the distinctions between the Coastal Sámi and other coastal people. The students were previously unfamiliar with the term Coastal Sámi and showed particular interest in what defines its uniqueness. In the lessons, the Coastal Sámi and other coastal groups were depicted as a single community with nearly identical hunting and fishing traditions. This made it unclear to some students who the Coastal Sámi were. The students expressed a desire to understand the distinctive aspects of Coastal Sámi culture and requested clarification on any unique fishing practices and traditions, as illustrated in this classroom audio recording excerpt:

Student:

“But wait a minute, wait a minute, what is the difference between […] Coastal Sámi fishing or whatever they call it and normal fishing?”

Teacher 1:

“That’s the thing about those who lived along the coast, it was all people really. There were both Coastal Sámi, Norwegians and Kvens [Finnish descent]”.

Student 2:

“Didn’t they use the same equipment when they almost lived together?”

Teacher 1:

“They used more or less the same equipment. […] And that was common for those who lived along the coast to do, who were engaged in fishing”.

Student 1:

“So, essentially, they were all just fishermen, the Coastal Sámi”.

The teacher was unable to provide an answer that the student found satisfactory. While the teacher understood that the Coastal Sámi and other coastal people lived and fished similarly with few contrasts, the students did not share this view. Thus, the teacher felt that the students were constantly looking for contrasts between the Coastal Sámi and other coastal peoples, and it was not obvious to the teacher herself what could be highlighted as unique characteristics.

3.1.3. Focus on the Past

The teaching focused on Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge as knowledge that has been passed down through generations. As a result, the instruction heavily emphasized historical aspects. At the start of the intervention, we emphasized Sámi tradition in the past, which we discussed as a challenge during a reflection conversation:

Teacher 2:

“Next time, we need to consider how to present Sámi traditional knowledge as relevant today, since our discussions often focus on the past”.

The conversation revealed the difficulty in making traditional knowledge appear contemporary and relevant to the students. There were different perceptions among the students regarding who the Coastal Sámi were. Among other aspects, students’ views on living conditions portrayed the Coastal Sámi as ancient, as illustrated by these examples from observation forms.

Student 1:

“I think the real Sámi lived in real houses”.

Student 2:

Googled “what did the Sámi live in”

The observations suggested that we should make Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge more relevant and current. The teaching had focused largely on early 20th-century fishing and hunting techniques, which have since been modernized or completely replaced. Students referred to Coastal Sámi fishing traditions and the Coastal Sámi people as relics of the past.

3.1.4. The Importance of the Place

The teaching was grounded in the students’ local area, reflecting the significance of land. This influenced the way in which the teacher incorporated the topic into science lessons. During lessons, the teacher consistently emphasized the local context by situating both herself and the students within the local area.

Teacher 2 said:

“Us here in the north”

The students were encouraged to start from their own local area, especially in the work on their speeches about identity and place that took place at the start of the actions. However, after the students presented their speeches, these were not utilized in subsequent work on Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge. Furthermore, the significance of grounding their learning in the local Sámi context was not explicitly communicated to the students, as revealed in a reflection conversation:

Teacher:

“We emphasize place and family, which are important for the Sámi. We have not covered it in this session, but we will address it in the next one”.

Despite the intention to discuss the importance of place and family in Sámi traditional knowledge, this topic was not addressed. While the students’ speeches provided valuable insights into their local connections, we did not fully capitalize on this opportunity to explore the links between their experiences with the land and Sámi traditional knowledge.

3.2. Approaches to Multicultural Reform

The four approaches of integration of Indigenous topics where all evident in the project. The use of different teaching approaches at various stages of the project are shown in

Table 2. Considering our practice using Banks’s (2016) approaches to multicultural reform.

Approach	Code	Source and Examples
The Contributions Approach	Western view on Indigenous topics	Action cycle evaluations - Brief teacher introductions and explanations of Indigenous ideas; - Teacher- and student-generated perceptions of topics covered; - Assumption that teacher-directed research would initiate a sense of connection to the topic.
The Additive Approach	Challenges in authentic integration of Coastal Sámi perspectives	Action cycle evaluations - Attempts to include Coastal Sámi perspectives in teaching practice (e.g., contributions such as teacher introductions and explanations and generating perceptions); - Recognition that how to authentically integrate Coastal Sámi perspectives was challenging for both teachers; - Concerns that misconceptions were unintentionally being reinforced.
The Transformative Approach	Movement towards blending perspectives	Reflection notes - Teachers’ and teacher educators’ thinking about the notion of an ethnic “lens”; - Teacher educator’s consideration of how viewpoints and beliefs might be brought together.
	Understanding of multi- directional influence	Reflection notes - Teachers’ and teacher educators’ desire to see a range of perspectives promote common understanding.
The Social Action Approach	Recognizing cultural revitalization approaches	Reflection notes - Teachers’ consideration of the place of language in reinforcing unique cultures.
	Advancing decisions of action	Reflection notes - Teachers’ desire to contribute to change.

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3.2.1. The Contributions and Additive Approaches

The teachers’ action cycle evaluations showed that much of their teaching during this study involved well-intentioned contributions and additions to a curriculum that remained largely unchanged during the implementation. While the teachers’ aim was to include Indigenous perspectives, they used conventional teaching strategies such as brief teacher introductions and explanations of Indigenous ideas, student-generated mind-mapping, and teacher-generated PowerPoint presentations.

As they evaluated these teaching interventions, the teachers acknowledged that their attempts to draw out teacher- and student-generated perceptions of the topics covered and include Coastal Sámi perspectives in teaching practice by including “concepts [that] were presented and briefly explained to the students at the start of the lesson” tended to inadvertently result in contributions of Western views on Indigenous topics. An example of this can be seen in their use of the terms bivdit and birget as an introduction to the traditional Sámi understanding of nature. Teacher 1 wondered as follows:

“I reflected on the concepts of bivdet and birget, I am wondering if we should integrate them more effectively into our teaching. As it stands, it seems rather superficial”

This suggests that active use of the concepts by the students was not facilitated. The concepts were briefly introduced and explained at the lesson’s start, yet students had no chance to practice them orally. Later in the project, the concepts were contextualized within sustainable development to emphasize their relevance. While there were some positive examples where students independently applied Sámi concepts and knowledge, the teachers recognized the difficulties that they faced when attempting to include Coastal Sámi perspectives in their teaching practice, as well as the possibility of unintentionally reinforcing misconceptions. They realized that, overall, the integration of concepts such as bivdit and birget into the curriculum was not achieved.

The teachers also utilized two different teacher-directed research opportunities in the interventions. Firstly, conventional student groupings were given resources such as websites and old pictures from the local area with Coastal Sámi and other coastal people to support research about how Coastal Sámi lived in 1920. In this instance, the students were given key words for what should be included about Coastal Sámi, such as what they ate, how they lived, what they worked with, as well as their language and culture. Secondly, each student was required to research and design a speech about their own identity, centered around where they come from. Here, the students were expected to talk about their ancestors, their parents/guardians, themselves, and the nature that they hold close.

The evaluation of both teaching interventions highlighted the complexities of this work for the teachers and the danger of making assumptions that teacher-directed research would initiate a sense of connection to the topic for the students. The application of Sámi concepts and knowledge may have been influenced by the teacher’s instructional approach on how Coastal Sámi lived in 1920. Moreover, substantial teacher understanding of perspectives and enhanced support for students to foster a sense of belonging were required, exceeding the initial assumptions about the necessity to explain the purpose of the speeches and the significance of area belonging.

These evaluations also raised further concerns that misconceptions were unintentionally being reinforced. The teachers recognized both attempts as examples of the unforeseen challenges to be faced when trying to understand how to authentically integrate Coastal Sámi perspectives into their work. Without an intervention that involved developing a detailed understanding of the personal purpose and explicit context of this work with the students, an authentic integration of perspectives was not immediately achieved.

3.2.2. The Transformative and Social Action Approaches

No substantial evidence on the transformative and social action approaches could be drawn from the teachers’ action cycle evaluations in this study. However, the pre-cycle reflections of each of the teachers and teacher educators clearly revealed consideration of, and desire to enact, these approaches.

Both the teachers and teacher educators demonstrated consideration of perspectives beyond their own. They expressed an understanding of the importance of bringing viewpoints and beliefs together, indicating movement towards the blending of perspectives that is necessary for a transformative teaching practice. The teachers and teacher educators focused on wanting to understand and develop the ability to use perspectives beyond their own. As Teacher 1 wrote:

“What will it entail trying to see the teaching through a ‘Sami lens’?”

This notion of a “Sami lens” was also on the minds of the teacher educators as they considered their on-going role as theoretical and practical mentors for the teachers’ action research. One of them wrote the following in their reflection notes:

“As teachers we must find our own way into integrating perspectives and values from the three people that live on our land”.

Another teacher educator reflected on the multi-directional influence of teachers, emphasizing the need to incorporate diverse perspectives to foster a shared understanding. They questioned how teachers could integrate multiple viewpoints in their instruction to achieve a common understanding. This consideration of perspectives was also evident in the teachers’ reflections.

It can be concluded from the data that both the teachers and teacher educators wanted to contribute to positive change in teacher practice, and that they believed that multicultural reform was necessary for this to happen. However, a social action stance is most evident in the teachers’ reflections through two specific themes.

This stance came through most clearly as each of these two teachers reflected on the place and power of language in cultural revitalizing. For example, Teacher 2 wrote the following:

“teachers must reflect carefully on formulations and what the words we use actually express”.

Which was aligned with the following reflection from Teacher 1:

“how much language influences what we do, and how we with language exclude/include and thus almost determine whether or not we achieve what we want”.

The two teachers also wrote about moving from a desire for change to investing in action. They jointly expressed their intention to shift the approach to Indigenous education in Norwegian schools.

4. Discussion

The aim of this collaborative action research project was to bring together teachers, student teachers, and teacher educators to enhance understanding and address the challenges of teaching Indigenous topics relating to sustainability. The results revealed that pronoun usage frequently created a disconnect between teachers, students, and the Sámi identity, and there was a lack of clarity in distinguishing Coastal Sámi from other coastal communities. Additionally, the focus on historical aspects made it difficult to relate Sámi knowledge to contemporary contexts. Although there was a concerted effort to include Indigenous perspectives, these efforts occasionally resulted in initial integration that could be further refined to foster more transformative and socially engaged approaches.

Our analysis of the teachers’ planning, implementation, and evaluation, together with our shared reflection, discussion, and learning, revealed features of each of Banks’s (2016) four approaches to multicultural curriculum reform at different phases of the study. Evidence of Banks’s social action approach was most clear in our reflections and discussion before the student teachers began their planning, implementation, and evaluation processes. We all aimed to ensure that our decisions reflected the important social issues that were involved and led to valuable actions. This focus on social action meant that all five of us took a transformative stance when considering which elements of teaching practice and the science curriculum could be changed. The student teachers in particular, as the participants who were directly responsible for planning and implementation, were intent on identifying scientific concepts that they could authentically present to their students from the perspective of traditional Coastal Sámi.

Having a transformative stance did not, however, translate into transformative learning experiences for the students. We found that it was difficult for non-Coastal Sámi teachers to weave traditional knowledge with the expected curriculum structure in a way that felt transformative and socially valuable. This was particularly evident in the way in which the student teachers distanced themselves from the Coastal Sámi in their use of pronouns (Sollid & Olsen, 2019). Therefore, the teaching was largely additive, as we selected Coastal Sámi concepts and Indigenous perspectives that they felt comfortable adding to their structured lesson designs. This meant that the resulting learning for the research team and students in the class, while well intentioned, was perceived to be a superficial contribution to a multifaceted and significant phenomenon.

Despite the efforts to incorporate Sámi perspectives into the lessons, the lack of deep integration of Sámi views of nature, which emphasize equality between humans and nature (Keskitalo, 2023; Minde, 2021; Nergård, 2019), highlighted the gap between transformative aspirations and the actual educational outcomes. Sámi views of nature have gained a new relevance, as the Indigenous way of safeguarding and managing nature and its resources largely corresponds to important dimensions of sustainable development (Barton et al., 2022; Nilsson Dahlström et al., 2021; Stein et al., 2024). We wanted to foster an understanding and appreciation of Sámi traditional knowledge and beliefs by using the Sámi terms bivdit and birget, for example, combined with knowledge about Sámi views of nature as an equal and sustainable resource. However, our intentions were not able to be realized, because we did not yet have the necessary grounding in our own understanding and practice to embed the terms in a consistently authentic way. While we were working to achieve Banks’s (2016) transformative approach and deepen the students’ understanding, in reality, we made tentative contributions to a curriculum that is firmly established in our teaching practice and the students’ expectations.

Porsanger and Guttorm (2011) asserted that the continuous transfer of Sámi traditional knowledge connects the past, present, and future. However, to those outside Sámi communities, Sámi culture may seem predominantly influenced by historical elements (Nergård, 2019), thus positioning Coastal Sámi as ancient people, and this perception may have had a major impact on the students. When preparing the teaching unit, this impression was supported by first introducing the Coastal Sámi in the past through current Western pedagogy and thereafter trying to place the Coastal Sámi into a modern context. It could be argued that this perception stems from the current complexity of Sámi culture, which now often mirrors the culture of the majority population, obscuring distinct cultural elements (Olsen & Olsen, 2023). For teachers with limited connection to Indigenous culture, it was challenging to contextualize these values within a modern setting. However, the data showed that we recognized the tension between a transformative stance and additive practice (Banks, 2016), and we valued our role as teachers working with the Norwegian curriculum and the associated obligations involved (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017, 2019). There are only minor differences from the broader Coastal population; however, the Coastal Sámi maintain a unique history and culture (Høgmo, 1986; Minde, 2021; Nergård, 2019; Sollid & Olsen, 2019), which we did not have access to. The goal was to incorporate a “two-eyed seeing” approach (Bartlett et al., 2012). However, the tentative attempts to transform students’ thinking primarily focused on Western perspectives during inquiries into Coastal Sámi culture (Stein et al., 2024).

Murray and Bakken (2024) underscored the critical role of teacher training in identifying and correcting biases and gaps in textbook portrayals of Indigenous groups. In the Norwegian national curriculum, it is stated that through teaching, students will gain insights into the history, culture, societal life, and rights of the Sámi people, as well as the diversity within Sámi culture and society (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017). The teacher educators in this study understood their obligations as mentors, and they were invested in the role that they undertook. Nevertheless, it is clear that more than understanding and commitment was needed to fully support the student teachers in implementing their goals (Madden, 2015). The knowledge and experience that teachers acquire through education, along with the resources that are available for teaching, are essential prerequisites for competence in Indigenous topics (Evju & Olsen, 2022; Madden, 2015). And yet, in this project, we were all restricted in our ability to access appropriate and adequate knowledge for this particular situation: for example, the available material was about the Inland Sámi and did not take into account the diversity within the Sámi community (Holand & Haugan, 2024; Sollid & Olsen, 2019).

5. Limitations

Banks’s (2016) four approaches, which were used to analyze our reflections and practice, are not expected to be enacted sequentially or in isolation. Given our limited experience with Sámi knowledge, we take assurance from Banks’s belief that “the move from the first to the higher levels of ethnic content integration into the curriculum is likely to be gradual and cumulative” (2016, p. 38). Furthermore, in exploring Sámi traditional knowledge, we addressed questions of identity and belonging with students who did not know us. This could have been limited by our newly established relationship with them. Students might have been more open to discussing personal topics relating to identity and belonging if they had stronger familiarity with the teacher.

6. Implications

We aimed to enhance our collective understanding of teaching Indigenous topics and investigate the challenges that are faced by teachers who do not have a special relationship to Sámi culture and tradition when teaching science in lower secondary school with the theme of Coastal Sámi traditional knowledge. We found that although we were well intentioned, we lacked sufficient resources for the task. There needs to be greater emphasis in teacher education, and a greater range of resources on diverse Sámi topics must be made available for teachers to fulfill the curriculum’s intentions. This lack of resources has also been highlighted in earlier research (Evju & Olsen, 2022; Holand & Haugan, 2024).

The responsibility for providing appropriate resources should extend beyond individuals or small groups of dedicated teachers and teacher educators. Resources need to be viewed more widely than through Western thinking (Bang et al., 2014; Heim & Bergan, 2024; Keskitalo, 2023; Keskitalo et al., 2011; Seehawer & Breidlid, 2021). Honoring the intent outlined in the Norwegian curriculum (Kunnskapsdepartementet, 2017) requires a shift not just in what we do, but in how and why we do it. If teachers are going to be able to support student learning and understanding of Indigenous topics in meaningful and culturally appropriate ways, they need to be well supported and resourced themselves. We all need a clearer and more personal understanding of what authentic multicultural curriculum reform (Banks, 2016) really is in our nation. Opportunities for discussions about transformational and socially active teaching practices need to be prioritized in our university meetings and classes, as well as in our schools. These opportunities require time and space in our work. Policymakers, teacher education providers, schools, and members of the Sámi community all have an important part to play in this critical work.