Technology-Enhanced Pedagogy in Physical Education: Bridging Engagement, Learning, and Lifelong Activity

Abstract

The integration of technology into physical education (PE) has grown significantly in recent years, aiming to enhance student engagement, learning outcomes, and long-term adherence to physical activity. This study aims to critically examine the impact of technology-enhanced pedagogy in PE by reviewing the latest research on digital tools used in teaching and learning. Specifically, it explores how these technologies affect student engagement, knowledge retention, motor skill development, and self-regulated learning. Additionally, it seeks to identify potential barriers and strategies for optimizing their implementation in PE curricula. This study conducts a literature review, applying thematic analysis to categorize findings into key areas such as wearable technology, gamification, virtual and augmented reality, and artificial intelligence in physical education. Focused on the literature published between 2010 and 2025, it was conducted using academic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Finally, 151 articles were selected involving data extraction and qualitative synthesis of findings. Inclusion criteria encompassed peer-reviewed empirical studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses that investigated the application of technology in PE. The findings suggest that integrating technology into PE enhances motivation, engagement, motor skills, tactical understanding, and cognitive learning. However, issues such as digital inequality, lack of teacher training, and ethical concerns regarding student data collection pose significant challenges to widespread adoption. Also, this review identifies critical gaps and ethical considerations in the use of technology in PE, offering practical recommendations for its effective integration. Technology-enhanced pedagogy in PE offers numerous advantages, but its success depends on proper implementation, adequate teacher training, and equitable access to resources. However, this study is limited by the variability of methodologies across the reviewed studies, which may impact the generalizability of the findings.

1. Introduction

From 1990 to 2024, according to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2024), the prevalence of overweight among adolescents and children, including obesity, has risen from 8% to 22% by 2024 (WHO, 2024; World Obesity Federation, 2024). Regarding the adult population, 43% of people aged 18 and older were overweight, an increase of 18% since 1990 (WHO, 2024). The imbalance between calorie intake and expenditure leads to health problems that, in some cases, lead to more serious problems, including death. This is one of the reasons why physical education has become a fundamental subject in the different educational curricula in many countries.

The European Union emphasized the need to ensure adequate PE for its inhabitants living in the member states. In 2007, the European Parliament adopted a report on the role of sport in education by a large majority, in which it was stated that member states should place greater emphasis on promoting PE among children and teenagers (Le Parlement européen, 2007). Nevertheless, curricula and sessions linked to PE vary from country to country within the European Union. In the United States, physical sports programs are carried out through subjects such as PE and after-school activities, with academic and sports programs in some of their schools and in a more specific format. While in Europe the average is 2–3 sessions per week, in the United States, given its decentralization, the disparity ranges from 2 to 5 sessions per week depending on the institution and the state. Chile, on the other hand, bases its physical education and health program on the different compulsory educational stages and is updated by levels of learning objectives (LO), from basic aspects to more specialized LO where the technological aspect is not included within these LOs (Ministerio de Educación, 2023). In China, for example, compulsory schooling extends to the age of 15, where the role of education is regulated by the Chinese Ministry of Education and where PE is compulsory at all stages (Berengueras Pont, 2012). In South Korea, the aim is to promote lifelong learning, where schooling is compulsory until the age of 15. PE is also included in the Korean educational framework at all levels. Regarding the United States, even the increased prevalence of obesity is linked to younger age groups and lower educational attainment (H. Li & Adair, 2024). Finally, in Australia, a generic compulsory PE is envisaged in the first years of education, to continue with a more specific itinerary as they approach the end of their compulsory education stage at around 17 years of age. Health and movement are the core competencies around which educational action focuses. Other research, in Mexico City, shows that obesity and physical inactivity, among five unhealthy lifestyle risk factors, are associated with an increased risk of mortality (Ferrero-Hernández et al., 2025). Another reason for the increase in overweight is linked to screen exposure. A study revealed that the longer the exposure to screen use in children aged 2–14 years, the higher the association with overweight and obesity (Cartanyà-Hueso et al., 2022).

In other words, PE is widespread in the world at an academic level, but the levels of overweight and obesity have been increasing over the years, even though the subject/s are focused on the field of health, as we have seen in some examples, such as in the case of Chile or Australia. Even with the promotion of guidelines on certain diets or exercise programs, and even the approval of new medicines, there is still no evidence of a decrease in overweight in China, where research is calling for an increase in overweight or a redefinition of education in this area (Zeng et al., 2021). In the United States, the review by Safaei et al. suggests that one of the main causes of overweight and obesity is a lack of exercise or an inadequate diet, among others (Safaei et al., 2021).

The application of technology in the classroom is not a novelty either; there are also several articles with proposals for good practices. In 2015, evidence was collected to promote the use of mobile phones in PE classrooms in Romania from successful experiences in secondary school classrooms (Stoicescu & Stanescu, 2015). Information and communication technologies (ICT) have also shown that their use in PE classrooms significantly increases knowledge in this subject (La Rosa Feijoó, 2021). A further key element to consider today is the continuous exponential development of artificial intelligence (AI). The integration of adaptive learning technologies in education represents a paradigm shift, leveraging data analytics and AI to personalize learning experiences. These technologies dynamically adjust instructional content based on an individual student’s performance, learning pace, and preferences (Halkiopoulos & Gkintoni, 2024; Strielkowski et al., 2024). By continuously analyzing student interactions, adaptive learning systems provide customized support, targeted feedback, and optimized learning pathways, fostering greater engagement and improved learning outcomes. The introduction of AI into education marks a transformative shift toward more learner-centered and dynamic teaching methodologies. While its immediate impact on traditional education may be gradual, its long-term influence is expected to fundamentally reshape pedagogical approaches (Halkiopoulos & Gkintoni, 2024; Jian, 2023). In PE, AI-powered systems can enhance skill acquisition, personalized fitness tracking, and motor learning assessments, enabling educators to tailor instruction based on real-time data (Song, 2024). Beyond its educational applications, AI-driven adaptive learning plays a crucial role in fostering sustainability by ensuring equitable access to tailored education and equipping students with the knowledge to address complex global challenges, such as sustainability, climate change, and resource management. Additionally, these technologies promote innovation and drive economic growth, reinforcing the need for investment in AI-enhanced learning strategies that support both educational equity and long-term societal development.

In addition to AI, it is also necessary to bear in mind all the devices and associated tools that integrate it. Instead of promoting health and physical activity regularly, their use often leads us away from physical activity or physical exercise. However, it is up to educators to promote responsible and sustainable use to take advantage of their benefits for the health and well-being of the population. It is also up to the different administrations and institutions to ensure accessibility to the different tools, avoiding or reducing as much as possible the digital divide that may exist. In addition, different physical activity programs are being developed and implemented together with virtual or augmented reality experiences, highly accurate real-time measurements, applications with attractive and appealing objectives, etc., in the different sessions of the health-related subjects that make up the curriculum (Fabbrizio et al., 2023).

1.1. Search Methodology

To ensure a comprehensive and narrative analysis of the literature on technology-enhanced pedagogy in PE, this study followed a structured review methodology, drawing from established approaches in critical reviews (Martín-Rodríguez et al., 2024). The methodology involved a multi-stage process, including a literature search, selection criteria (151 articles), data extraction, and qualitative synthesis of findings. The search for the relevant literature was conducted across multiple academic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The search covered studies published between 1 January 2010 and 1 February 2025, ensuring the inclusion of the most up-to-date research on the integration of technology in PE. A combination of keywords and Boolean operators was used, incorporating terms such as “technology in physical education”, “Information and Communication Technology in PE”, “wearable devices in sports education”, “gamification in PE”, “virtual reality and augmented reality in PE”, and “artificial intelligence in sports pedagogy”.

Study Selection Criteria

To determine the eligibility of studies, the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied.

The inclusion criteria are the following:

• peer-reviewed publications that examined the impact of technological tools on teaching and learning in PE;
• empirical studies, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses;
• research focusing on the application of wearable devices, gamified platforms, fitness applications, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and artificial intelligence (AI) in PE;
• studies published in English or Spanish.

The exclusion criteria are the following:

• studies not directly related to technology-enhanced pedagogy in PE;
• publications with methodological flaws, small sample sizes, or insufficient statistical power;
• non-peer-reviewed sources, including PhD dissertations, conference abstracts, and unpublished studies.

Selected studies were reviewed by the authors to ensure consistency and rigor in data extraction. The key information extracted included study objectives, sample characteristics, methodologies, technological tools analyzed, and reported outcomes related to learning engagement, knowledge acquisition, and physical activity levels. Given the diversity of study designs and technological applications in PE, a qualitative synthesis approach was adopted. Thematic analysis was used to categorize the findings into key areas:

• wearable technology in PE;
• the role of fitness applications;
• the use of gamification strategies;
• virtual and augmented reality in PE instruction;
• artificial intelligence in sports education.

To analyze the relationships between the themes, a concept-mapping approach was conducted, examining how each technology differentially impacts student engagement, motor learning, and autonomy in physical activity. To ensure a rigorous synthesis of the findings, the following steps were followed:

• initial coding: identification of key elements in each study;
• thematic grouping: classification of findings into the five identified categories;
• establishing connections: examining relationships between themes and their effects on teaching and learning in PE;
• pattern validation: comparing trends across studies to confirm the robustness of the results.

This approach enabled a structured interpretation of the data, facilitating the identification of gaps in the literature, as well as opportunities for future research on the integration of technology in PE. Additionally, we critically evaluated the findings by considering infrastructure, policies, and accessibility differences across contexts, ensuring that our review provides a comprehensive and unbiased perspective.

While this review provides valuable insights into technology-enhanced pedagogy in PE, certain limitations should be acknowledged. The reliance on the published literature may introduce publication bias, and language restrictions to English and Spanish may exclude relevant studies in other languages. Additionally, variations in study methodologies and sample populations may limit the generalizability of findings. Future research should explore the long-term effects of technology integration in PE, comparative analyses across different educational contexts, and the development of best practices for educators.

This structured methodological approach ensures a rigorous and comprehensive analysis of how technology is shaping the teaching and learning experience in PE, highlighting both opportunities and challenges for educators and students alike. In this regard, the main objective of this work is to explore, through an analysis of the existing literature, new ways of working in PE within the teaching–learning process in relation to new technologies and the impact they have had on teaching practices. Unlike the previous literature reviews on technology-enhanced PE, which have primarily focused on specific tools (e.g., wearable devices or gamification), it has provided a comprehensive analysis that integrates recent advancements in AI-driven learning, augmented and virtual reality, adaptive learning technologies, and critical issues such as teacher training, the digital divide, and ethical considerations. Additionally, an approach for a more holistic understanding of the impact of emerging technologies on PE pedagogy has been exposed.

2. Technological Tools in Physical Education

The integration of wearable devices in PE has transformed the way students engage with physical activity and learning. These tools provide real-time feedback, enhance motivation, and personalize training experiences. As their adoption grows, educators must ensure their effective use in the classroom (Figure 1). The search explores the impact of wearables on student engagement, learning outcomes, and pedagogical innovation. Additionally, wearable technology has shown improvements across all age groups, from young children to adolescents, fostering engagement and physical development at every stage (Kang & Exworthy, 2022).

2.1. Wearable Devices

The use of portable devices is widespread among the population, among both adults and children. In 2018, over 95% of adolescents aged 13–16 globally owned a smartphone, reflecting a 22% increase since 2014. Electronic devices, including smartphones, tablets, computers, and game consoles, have become integral to daily life, serving multiple purposes, such as social networking, studying, and entertainment (Courtright & Caplan, 2020; Tsang et al., 2023). Nowadays, a recent study carried out by Shorter et al. exposed that students are increasingly dedicating time to both academic tasks and social interactions through digital devices. However, social media may not necessarily be the primary platform for facilitating these activities (Voss et al., 2023). The responsibility for their effective and intelligent use also falls on the education system, as well as on the family, as mentioned above. Taking advantage of their benefits is an opportunity to increase the levels of motivation and relevance of learning while using technology and educating about it.

Within the subject of PE, there are numerous examples of the advance of technology in this sense. Moreover, its use has become widespread and accepted by many teachers nowadays, (Moura et al., 2023), where improvements in learning outcomes are also evident as a result of its inclusion in the classroom (Fu et al., 2021). Good practices, together with empirical development, are the innovative elements on which teaching work is based, without forgetting the curriculum and the necessary training to be able to correctly carry it out.

Currently, performing a physical sporting activity involves knowing aspects related to the use of portable devices and their associated tools. Already in 2015, an application such as Runkeeper allowed secondary school students, through a curricular activity related to basketball, to know data on the pace of their progress, running pace, speed, or calories burned (Stoicescu & Stanescu, 2015). Using other types of apps, another article concluded that step-measuring apps could be potential tools for monitoring, evaluating, and promoting physical activity in girls and boys (Jaén-Jiménez et al., 2020). We are talking about the year 2015 onwards, and we can see how the use of portable devices is not a novelty nowadays.

In recent years, other types of research have been carried out in this area. In primary education, the labeling of key moments in the teaching of football using a tablet was used by means of the video technique. The results showed the need to distribute the time of use of the tablet in an equitable way and the need to take care of possible conflict in the viewing, where criticism in relation to tactical or technical errors was not always accepted by the students (Diekhoff & Greve, 2023). In this sense, it was concluded that this type of application of technology in the classroom opens up new possibilities for didactic design in the classroom, considering it essential for the success of the resulting combination of technology and its use in PE. On the other hand, through the CoachEye application (an application that enables learning from video analysis) in the university context, it was demonstrated that the incorporation of technology is effective, in a generic way, to complement the teaching and learning process (Zulkifli & Danis, 2021). Finally, it was identified through structured video evaluation using a prototype iPad application that has the potential to improve the nature of feedback in a study of 24 students in an Alberta elementary physical education class (San et al., 2022). Thus, the same study also concludes that digital video is an essential tool for assessing and analyzing psychomotor objectives in PE.

In secondary education, it is shown how the implementation of robotics into the teaching methodology is more successful among students than if a traditional methodology is used in the PE classroom (Marín-Marín et al., 2020).

AI also has a role in this field, as it could not be otherwise. On this occasion, a model based on a Transformer (neural network architecture) is proposed to evaluate the effectiveness of PE classes using data obtained through the measurement of steps and heart rate. In this way, greater precision is achieved in the evaluation of teaching performance and in the detection of abnormal behavior during classes, compared to previous models (Dong, 2023). It is also being used to build teaching frameworks to innovate in sports education (J. Guo, 2024).

Other studies focus on providing teachers with the necessary applications to monitor the intensity of student effort. In order to adequately monitor this intensity, Lei Fang developed a detection algorithm for a wave group of EKG signals to perform quality quantitative measurements in the subject of PE (Fang, 2022). In another direction, a new sports model suitable for the integral development of students was developed from the development of algorithms equipped with pressure and attitude sensors to collect human data through a portable device (Haidong, 2022). The integration of portable devices in PE enhances learning and engagement, but its success depends on thoughtful pedagogy, teacher training, and equitable access. Ensuring responsible use will maximize benefits while maintaining the core values of physical education.

2.2. Fitness Applications

There are a large number of applications that are developed for various purposes related to health, physical activity, or physical exercise. Many of these apps are free to access, and this makes it possible to use them in PE. Concretely, Yahya et al.’s systematic mapping review explores mobile application integration in physical education, analyzing benefits, challenges, and impacts on health, training, and instruction. The findings highlight their influence on student health and teaching practices while noting barriers like teacher resistance and limited digital skills, emphasizing the need for accessible, health-focused app development (Yahya et al., 2025). Thus, without going into the ethical aspect or aspects, such as the data protection associated with the registration and downloading of these apps, it has been demonstrated how their use in the subject is spreading and generating research in this regard. What is clear is that the benefits of regular practice in PE classes to improve physical activity (PA) are universal in all WHO countries (Uddin et al., 2020). Now, it is needed to verify how the adaptation to new technologies in the classroom is progressing.

An unprecedented adaptation between PE and technology occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. During this pandemic, teachers almost everywhere in the world had to reinvent themselves and use online teaching without having done so before. This phenomenon triggered several research studies. Before this, there was already research on teachers who received this type of training to increase their students’ physical activity levels (Lonsdale et al., 2016). The basis for this type of learning was beginning to take shape.

In some cases, such as in Brazilian education, the problem of insufficient training to be able to teach online during the COVID-19 pandemic and how it built on practices already recognized in face-to-face teaching was identified (Leite et al., 2022). Others pointed out the need to improve the quality of e-learning in Russia (Osipov et al., 2020) or the hindrance of e-learning in the Philippines due to a lack of resources for students and a technological gap between teachers (Pascua & Lagunero Tagare, 2024). Other studies point to the necessity of further training to deal with this type of consequences (Yücekaya et al., 2021).

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an example of development in every sense. The inclusion of the internet in elementary matters reached the field of education a while ago. More currently, we see how in the physical education classroom it is possible to monitor one’s own physical activity more efficiently by reducing the error rate within physical skills by monitoring heartbeat and body temperature (Q. Li et al., 2022). Even another study provides evidence that portable IoT devices can have a positive impact on university students in the PE environment (Xu et al., 2024).

Moving into the field of the application of apps in PE, there is scientific evidence of their use in the classroom. These are diverse, given the wide range of existing tools and the different types of uses they involve. Given the difference between the tools that can be applied, the creativity of the teacher or the educational stages at which they are aimed are elements to be taken into account. Here, we will look at some scientifically proven examples. Mateo-Orcajada et al. conducted a study including 385 adolescents that examined alterations in physical activity, kinanthropometric and derived variables, and physical condition following the utilization of step-tracking applications, such as Strava, Pokemon Go, Pacer, or MapMyWalk, outside of school hours. The applications were advocated for by professionals in the domain of physical education This study concluded by indicating that the use of these mobile applications seems to be relevant for increasing strength and decreasing fat mass, along with a higher training volume (Mateo-Orcajada et al., 2024). The use of the Strava app, in another study carried out on 368 university students with the aim of evaluating outdoor sports activities, led to conclusions that show how well it works in PE through the hybridization of instruction by the teacher and the use of Strava and activity monitors, highlighting the continuous evaluation of the teacher in the process (Hrušová et al., 2024). It is also found that a good level of motivation is necessary at the beginning of this type of teaching methodology, since when the minimum pre-established objectives visualized through Strava were reached, they finished the training.

Research boosted rapidly, and through the design of a virtual physical training application and its subsequent testing on students aged 19–23 years, it was shown that the students were motivated and involved in the practice, indicating that it is necessary to update the application to adapt it to different contexts or the inclusion of methodologies such as gamification, in order for the results to be more positive (Mokmin & Jamiat, 2021). Another study, using the Hudl Technique application for teaching badminton in one junior high charter school in the Southwestern United States, showed that, through the use of the video in this app and its ongoing and immediate feedback, it supported the teacher in the instruction, helped the students to know their progress, and promoted active participation in class (Yu et al., 2022).

From another perspective, studies are also conducted to measure the reliability, validity, and utility of measuring the performances of PE students. For example, these features were demonstrated in the use of the My Jump 2 app in primary school girls and boys to measure jumping performance (Bogataj et al., 2020). The use of the iPhone Level App to measure the active lower limb range of motion compared to the universal goniometer in university students in sports science was also identified as a good reliable method (Kırkaya et al., 2021). Finally, the review carried out by Gil-Espinosa et al. reveals an aspect to be taken into account. It is none other than the need for teachers and administrations to participate in the development of applications that allow for adaptation to the curriculum, following WHO recommendations on adaptation to the target audience (Gil-Espinosa et al., 2022). The integration of apps in PE has demonstrated significant benefits, from increasing motivation to improving assessment accuracy. However, continuous updates, teacher training, and curriculum alignment are essential to maximize their potential and ensure their effective implementation in diverse educational contexts.

2.3. Augmented and Virtual Reality (AR/VR)

While augmented reality (AR) overlays or displays elements in the real world using mobile devices, tablets, etc., virtual reality (VR) creates artificial virtual environments, usually visualized through VR glasses, gloves, suits, and associated sensors to make the experience as immersive as possible. Both tools are used in the educational world and also in the subject of PE. A 2025 systematic review pointed out that specifically the potential of these technologies to enhance personalized learning, support diverse educational approaches, and improve student engagement, self-regulation, and academic achievement through real-time data tracking and adaptive learning (Lampropoulos & Evangelidis, 2025). Thus, the interaction in the teaching–learning context changes, although the curricular elements to be worked on or competencies to be acquired are the same.

The customization of learning or the overcoming of obstacles that may limit it may be one reason why these tools have a place in the area of PE. In this case, AR is presented, after its implementation by 28 physical education teachers with students with educational needs in Yacarta, as a facilitator of learning that helps in the understanding of the teaching material in an attractive way (Widyaningsih et al., 2023). The study conducted by Chang et al. (2020), combined the use of the textbook with an AR software called AR-PEclass. They received interactive learning with a 3D character while the control group received instruction via video and the textbook. The basic knowledge used was the basic running and actions of a Mark exercise. The results showed that AR-assisted learning produced higher performance in learning more complex motor skills (Chang et al., 2020).

Morento-Guerrero et al., 2020, concluded that the methodology applied through augmented reality, by configuring the Aurasma program, is effective in the subject of PE in secondary education, especially in contents related to orientation (Moreno-Guerrero et al., 2020). Regarding AR work, in this case, combined with game-based learning (GBL) and inspired by a mobile game (Subway Surfers), it was used to perform physical activity and to increase motivation levels. In this case, it was concluded that both physical activity and motivation levels among students are significantly improved (Omarov et al., 2024a). Another study also concluded that aspects of determination and satisfaction with learning are increased, in this case among student athletes (Paramitha et al., 2024). VR, in this case, was proven to reduce the number of security incidents by 65% after implementation, while also increasing independence in PE practice by more than 20% in the university context (Meng, 2021). In any case, reference is made to the need for broader research approaches.

Although it has been suggested for racket sports before, table tennis also contains VR game proposals. An investigation was carried out in the educational context where its positive assessment and potential implementation in the classroom by PE teachers was revealed, where also the tested application was marked by a beneficial intensity of physical activity and where the level depends on the game mode (Polechoński, 2024). AR and VR are proving to be valuable tools in PE, enhancing engagement, skill acquisition, and safety. However, further research is needed to optimize their implementation and explore their long-term impact on learning outcomes.

2.4. Gamified Platforms

Gamification did not arise in the educational context, but as is well-known by the educational community, it has gradually been integrated into it. Educationally speaking, gamification is based on learning through immersion in a specific game (Barrachina et al., 2020).

Immersion in the game can be adapted to the interests and motivations of the students or generated with the support of leaderboards, reward systems, or competitive activities, among others. PE has been no stranger to this integration, and different proposals have been developed and tested in its implementation in the subject. Different contents have been dealt with in this respect and with different attributions.

The treatment of corporal expression through African dance was the object of study in a gamified experience against the traditional methodology and yielded results where the levels of intrinsic, identified, and external motivation increased, but not significantly (Real et al., 2021). Fighting sports, in this case judo, were the subject of research using a similar design to the study mentioned above. In this case, the competitive activity involved obtaining names and positions of judokas who had participated in the Rio de Janeiro Olympic Games, studying this person, and obtaining a photo. The ranking varied according to the achievement of this objective and the reward was a commemorative object. Thus, compared to a traditional methodology, gamification generated significant improvements in cognitive and motor learning but no change in motivation (Sevilla-Sanchez et al., 2022).

In primary education, the ClassDojo application was used to create a gamified proposal that awards points based on behavior (positive or negative). One avatar per student was generated, which could be modified in terms of appearance by using these points. Finally, it is concluded that intrinsic motivation increased in the experimental group compared to the control group and that extrinsic motivation and demotivation remained unchanged in the pilot group (Sotos-Martínez et al., 2023). In Chile, a gamification related to superheroes was carried out in which students (between 9 and 10 years old on average) chose the one who most represented them to defeat a series of supervillains related to sedentary or unhealthy habits (‘Food-Scrapman’). A series of challenges were required, for which points needed to defeat the supervillains were earned after overcoming them. Finally, it was concluded that, after 12 gamified sessions, the total motor development and object control of the students at these ages were improved (Morales et al., 2024). Gamification in Chile needs further study.

Combining the teaching of alternative racket sports with a gamified experience based on the well-known Harry Potter book and film series was also the subject of research. Secondary school students were given trophies (associated with the saga) as rewards, skill cards, and a series of magical scores and ranks for the sport in question as the main attributes of the gamification. The results showed better involvement by the students and the achievement of good learning results (Chacón Borrego & Ortega Jiménez, 2021).

In higher education, the association of the video game Mario and Sonic in the Olympic Games and the performance of physical cooperative challenges related to the Olympic Games generated interesting results. These results support the use of gamification in higher-education teaching in future PE teachers, where it is associated with higher levels of intrinsic and self-determined motivation, basic psychological needs, and cooperative learning (Pérez-Muñoz et al., 2022). In the same teaching context, in this case with students from the Sports Science Degree, a gamification project was carried out with students under the learning experience called “$in TIME” based on the film ‘In Time’ where students are immersed in the narrative of belonging to a controlled ghetto where the idea of the proposal is that life is time and time is an opportunity to enrich life through learning (Navarro-Mateos & Pérez-López, 2021). Thus, through an app created for the purpose and connected to others, such as Runtastic, students were allowed to manage the routine activities of a future teacher or where challenges were proposed. In this way, points were obtained that were established in a ranking or privileges to be exchanged for cards related to gamification. The results concluded that the inclusion of meaningful aspects of gamification has an impact on their motivation and involvement and, consequently, on increased learning. It also highlights the need to develop a suitable narrative for the results to be as expected (Navarro-Mateos & Pérez-López, 2021).

3. Benefits of Technology-Enhanced Pedagogy

The integration of technology in PE aligns with key pedagogical theories that support active, student-centered learning. Constructivist learning theory suggests that students learn best when they actively engage in experiences that allow them to build their own understanding (Mcleod, 2023; Zajda, 2021). Digital tools such as wearable devices, gamification, and AR create interactive and exploratory learning environments that promote hands-on engagement, self-regulated learning, and personalized feedback, reinforcing knowledge acquisition through experience. Additionally, self-determination theory provides a framework for understanding how technology fosters autonomy, competence, and relatedness in PE settings (Chiu, 2022). Digital interventions, such as AI-driven adaptive learning and mobile fitness applications, offer students instant feedback, goal-setting mechanisms, and performance tracking, increasing intrinsic motivation and long-term engagement in physical activity. Incorporating these theoretical foundations into technology-enhanced pedagogy ensures that digital tools are not just supplementary but actively contribute to the development of lifelong movement skills, motivation, and cognitive engagement in PE curricula (Yahya et al., 2025).

Considering this, notwithstanding the above, technological evolution has resulted in many people being concerned about the impact of AI on their jobs for fear that they will be displaced by it or that the application of technology in the classroom may be detrimental to the educational development of students. Within the area of PE, there are competencies or aspects that need to be managed by professionals, such as creativity, dialogue, or listening (de Oliveira & Fraga, 2021), among others. In this sense, professionals can rest assured. That is why it is convenient to know what benefits technology brings us to improve the teaching work and, ultimately, the teaching–learning process.

Many studies endorse these benefits. Some of them have already been described above, although in some cases, they are still established as future lines of research, such as the consolidation of specific educational methodologies or actions that revolve around technology and its application in the PE classroom. It is even claimed that technologies applied in the PE classroom improve performance measures in a physical condition assessment, the ability to learn and understand, and behavior or self-regulation (Radianti et al., 2020).

By using the Endomondo App, it was found that it promotes physical activity among adolescents in out-of-school time in a study carried out on 138 students in compulsory secondary education as part of PE (Gil-Espinosa & Mayorga-Vega, 2020). Another app (Polar Beat) generated results in which it was deduced that it motivates participants to practice physical activity and have a better understanding of the contents (Vega-Ramírez et al., 2020). There is also a need for technology to support the monitoring of physical activity, the learning process, and self-monitoring so that it can be a lifelong benefit to people’s health. Finally, even through online learning, positive results have been obtained in relation to the improvement of students’ autonomy and enthusiasm for physical exercise in schools and universities by taking advantage of Big Data and the application of the OpenPose algorithm (M. Yang & Meng, 2024).

Another study conducted under an intervention to evaluate the implementation of a hybrid methodology between a flipped classroom and technology integration in PE for eighth-grade students in an international middle school in the Netherlands detected differences between the qualitative and quantitative analyses. The qualitative findings revealed that both engagement and motivation to learn about physical literacy increased post-intervention, while the paired samples t-test results showed that no significant changes were observed (Frew, 2023).

The integration of technology into PE has demonstrated significant benefits, from enhancing student motivation and engagement to improving self-monitoring and learning outcomes. While concerns about AI and digital tools replacing essential human aspects of education persist, research supports their role as valuable complements rather than replacements. Apps like Endomondo and Polar Beat, along with advanced data-driven approaches, have shown the potential to foster lifelong physical activity habits. However, for these technologies to reach their full potential, future studies should focus on refining hybrid methodologies, ensuring accessibility, and equipping educators with the necessary skills to maximize their impact in diverse educational settings.

4. Addressing Barriers

Disparities in the availability and utilization of technology, known as the digital divide, pose a serious obstacle to educational progress (Figure 2). Afzal et al. reported, for instance, that there were significant differences in internet access between the ages of people, with younger people having significantly more access than older people (Afzal et al., 2023). Also, rural areas had worse connectivity compared to urban areas, when it came to residential internet access (Nakayama et al., 2023).

Thus, there were clear disparities in the possession of personal devices between genders, which brought attention to the possibility of digital divides related to gender. Additionally, there was a socioeconomic gap in technological availability, with pupils from low-income households having less access to the internet (Graves et al., 2021). Academics and parents have become increasingly aware of the many challenges associated with the availability and use of technology in higher education (Cheshmehzangi et al., 2022). Concerns about the influence of technology on classroom learning are important but so are debates about how to address these concerns and what shape they should take. Another cause for worry is how these developments may impact the accessibility of good educational options. College students today must be well-versed in and proficient in a variety of technology tools and practices if they are to succeed in the workforce and life after graduation (Okoye et al., 2023). A highly technologically competent populace is essential for any nation that wishes to keep up with the rest of the world in terms of technological advancement and global competitiveness. Nevertheless, a notable disparity in wealth is produced by the rates at which various nations embrace technology (Francis & Weller, 2022).

4.1. Challenges in Physical Education

The incorporation of technology in physical education offers various advantages, although it also poses considerable problems that must be confronted. Concerns about data privacy have arisen as digital tools gather sensitive student information, prompting ethical and security dilemmas (Huang, 2023). Huang’s recent study emphasizes that the protection of student data privacy is an urgent issue that must be addressed. It highlights key concerns related to data security, including unauthorized access, data misuse, and insufficient regulatory frameworks (Huang, 2023). Additionally, the absence of thorough teacher training frequently obstructs the successful implementation of technological tools in the classroom, resulting in inconsistent or superficial usage. A systematic review by Gkrimpizi et al. (2023) highlights several critical barriers to digital transformation in education. Resistance to change, fear, uncertainty, and skepticism about the possibility of meaningful transformation continue to hinder the adoption of technology in academic settings. Additionally, the reluctance of more traditional academics and a general lack of interest in digital advancements contribute to the slow integration of new information systems (Vogelsang et al., 2020). Beyond individual resistance, digital transformation also requires structural organizational changes, which can lead to power shifts—empowering some individuals while weakening others. Aditya et al. also specified that these factors underscore the need for strategic implementation plans, professional training, and institutional support to facilitate the effective adoption of technology in PE and beyond (Aditya et al., 2022). Thus, the digital divide persists as a significant concern, as not all students possess equitable access to gadgets and internet connectivity, resulting in discrepancies in educational opportunities. These challenges underscore the necessity for rules and practices that guarantee the responsible, equitable, and successful utilization of technology in physical education environments.

Given that the present purpose of physical education is to help students gain the knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity, it is only fitting that public health issues, such as the decline in physical activity, be addressed within the field of physical education (Rasberry et al., 2011). Physical education instructors faced several obstacles resulting from the increase in technology use, and the transition to online instruction has already started (Centeio et al., 2021). Teachers in physical education, a historically underrepresented field, often during the COVID-19 pandemic relied on trial-and-error approaches due to a lack of training and knowledge in remote PE instruction. However, using digital, internet-based technology to communicate important instructions before classes is one growing didactical approach called flipped learning (FL). Afterward, it incorporates possibilities for active learning during in-person gatherings to motivate students to put their online knowledge into practice (Østerlie et al., 2023). Additionally, Hyun Suk Lee and collaborators pointed out that future physical education instructors will need to be experts in using AI. In terms of practical implications, AI innovations are impacting all areas of life, including physical education, so it then draws attention to how AI applications are relevant to PE technology (Lee & Lee, 2021). Also, because these digital innovations have garnered interest in tracking users’ health, fitness, and environment and have been utilized to enhance the educational experience, wearable technologies like fitness trackers and smartwatches give educators fresh ways to teach (Almusawi et al., 2021). Some organizations suggest that these technologies might, in theory, ensure both universal and individualized access to education. Nonetheless, the effectiveness of these innovations often hinges on the extent to which educators enhance their professional and information and communication technology (ICT) knowledge (Kohl & Cook, 2013; Vincent-Lancrin et al., 2019). This creates a new kind of difficulty, one that is more related to the degree to which educators are prepared to embrace and incorporate these innovations into their lessons. Even though there has been prior research on excellent physical education instruction that is both effective and linked with student learning outcomes and promotes standard success, most of this research has focused on the physical education instruction that takes place in a traditional classroom setting (Ahmed et al., 2021; Kohl & Cook, 2013). Thus, the main goal of online physical education, devices, and all kinds of ICT is to increase fitness levels and health behaviors, while the main focus of in-person physical education is to develop competency in a range of motor skills. While there is evidence that children benefit from online physical education, there is also little research in this field, which has led to concerns about teacher preparation, student responsibility, and an incomplete picture. Even if it is situation-specific, we must record how online PE happened during the COVID-19 epidemic so that we can learn from it and use it in the future. Education is only one of several fields where innovation is essential to moving forward, regardless of how prepared people may be (Ahmed et al., 2021).

4.2. Teacher Preparedness

Many PE teachers face difficulties in adapting to new technologies due to insufficient institutional support, limited access to training programs, and the rapid evolution of digital tools. Integrating technology in pedagogy demands a significant time investment, which can act as a disincentive due to increasing workload pressures. Many struggle to balance teaching and administrative responsibilities, leaving little room for creative reflection and interdisciplinary collaboration (Rima Aditya et al., 2021). The additional burden of adapting to new pedagogical methods alongside emerging technologies can be overwhelming. Furthermore, inadequate information technology support exacerbates these challenges. For instance, higher-education institutions require consistent and responsive technical assistance to ensure that faculty can confidently integrate digital tools into their teaching (Rima Aditya et al., 2021; Belleza et al., 2021). However, common barriers include insufficient support, slow response times, and misalignment with departmental needs, which hinder both educators and students from fully benefiting from digital transformation. Additionally, disparities in digital literacy among teachers exacerbate the digital divide, creating inconsistent learning experiences for students (Gkrimpizi et al., 2023).

To ensure effective teaching, factors such as teacher motivation and professional development play a vital role. Understanding how in-service training contributes to enhancing teacher motivation and professional growth can be insightful (Gorozidis & Papaioannou, 2014). Considering the importance of continuous training in education, the question is how such programs can best inspire educators while also supporting their professional advancement, expertise, and self-confidence (Gorozidis & Papaioannou, 2014). However, although in-service training programs are widely implemented in both private and public schools, the data show that these programs do not significantly impact teacher motivation in either type of institution. A key motivating factor for both public and private school teachers in these training programs is the attainment of a training certificate. Most teachers agree that their primary reason for participating in in-service training is to obtain certification, a finding that aligns with previous research conducted in different educational contexts. Additionally, gender differences in motivation among teachers are minimal. As a result, the study confirms that these training programs provide limited motivation for teachers to actively participate or to continue in the teaching profession (Azaiez et al., 2019; Gorozidis & Papaioannou, 2014).

Regarding professional development, it can be described as a structured process aimed at increasing teaching skills, enthusiasm, and overall effectiveness, ultimately leading to improved student learning outcomes. It plays a significant role in educational reforms, student progress, and shaping teachers’ perspectives and practices (Ahmed et al., 2021). Teacher motivation is a key element of professional development, as it influences the effectiveness of training initiatives. While previous perspectives have focused on factors such as training transfer, participant engagement, and learning, more comprehensive approaches also consider elements like student outcomes, institutional support, and broader educational changes. However, further research is required to gain a deeper understanding of how teachers assimilate new knowledge and how students respond to these developments (Ahmed et al., 2021). According to Nawab’s (2017) case study of a public school in Pakistan, in-service teacher training has a good effect on trainee teachers’ attitudes, yet there are various obstacles that hinder teachers from making use of what has been taught in the classrooms. To get the most out of in-service teacher training, it is important to have administrative, professional, and financial backing, in addition to the training itself (Nawab, 2017). Additionally, assert that acquiring topic knowledge poses challenges, particularly for inexperienced educators, and this inadequacy can be mitigated by teacher training programs. This study indicates that teachers reacted unfavorably (Swackhamer et al., 2009).

When inquired about the significance of teacher training in augmenting their subject expertise, this suggests that the majority of teacher training programs are inadequately structured to impart appropriate subject knowledge. However, Swackhamer et al. discovered that instructors’ topic expertise yields positive outcomes in student accomplishment, particularly in mathematics and science. Consequently, it is essential that teacher training sessions emphasize educators’ subject expertise (Swackhamer et al., 2009).

In summary, it is known that a health-promoting learning environment should be established by enhancing the health-promoting function of physical education in secondary schools (Neil-Sztramko et al., 2021). This can be achieved through implementing measures such as establishing standards for motor modes of 12-year school education, ensuring that all grades have three physical education lessons per week, and using a differentiated approach with different groups of students. As a result, universities must update their physical education programs to better prepare future teachers and put more emphasis on producing innovative experts capable of leading health education programs (Demchenko et al., 2021).

4.3. Education for Suitable Development

A recent systematic review carried out by Lohmann et al. reported that all educators, particularly those in the field of physical education (PE), must possess ESD-specific professional action competence if ESD is to be effectively implemented in the classroom (Lohmann et al., 2021). In this regard, for education for sustainable development (ESD) to be effective, proficient educators are essential. ESD enables learners to develop the competencies necessary to comprehend ecological, economic, socio-cultural, and political interdependencies at both local and global levels, to imagine potential, probable, and desired futures, and to act responsibly and collaboratively towards a sustainable future. For ESD to be effectively integrated into PE, it is essential to have PE teachers equipped with specialized professional competencies in this area. Professional competence, in terms of cognitive dispositions, includes four key components: personal beliefs and values, subject-specific knowledge, motivational drive, and self-regulation skills (Eduardo Betancur-Agudelo et al., 2018).

To develop ESD-specific professional competence in PE teachers, several key strategies can be employed (Eduardo Betancur-Agudelo et al., 2018). Professional development workshops and curriculum integration enable educators to incorporate sustainability principles into their teaching. Klaperski et al. also reported the need for experiential learning, such as outdoor activities and eco-friendly sports events, to provide hands-on opportunities to promote sustainability concepts (Klaperski-van der Wal, 2023). Collaborative learning and interdisciplinary approaches encourage knowledge sharing and a holistic understanding by connecting PE with other subjects like science and geography (Kumaraswamy & Chitale, 2012). The use of digital resources, including online platforms and webinars, supports continuous learning and access to ESD content (Rieckmann, 2018). Reflective practice helps teachers assess and refine their approaches to sustainability education. School-wide initiatives, such as eco-friendly sports programs and health promotion campaigns (Pulimeno et al., 2020), foster a culture of sustainability. Additionally, an awareness of policies and guidelines ensures teachers align their practices with national and international sustainability frameworks. Finally, mentoring and coaching offer personalized support to help teachers confidently integrate ESD into their PE programs (Biström & Lundström, 2021; Van Poeck et al., 2024).

In conclusion, equipping physical education teachers with ESD-specific professional competencies is fundamental to fostering a sustainable future through education. A multi-faceted approach that includes professional development, experiential learning, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the integration of digital resources can enhance educators’ ability to effectively incorporate sustainability principles into their teaching. By embracing reflective practice and aligning with established policies and guidelines, PE teachers can contribute significantly to shaping environmentally conscious and responsible students. Ultimately, these efforts will ensure that physical education serves as a powerful platform for promoting sustainable development at both the individual and societal levels.

5. Supporting Evidence: Innovative Empirical Studies

The integration of technology into physical education has gained significant attention in recent years, with a growing body of evidence supporting its effectiveness in enhancing teaching and learning experiences (Hu et al., 2024; D. Yang et al., 2020). This section explores key supporting evidence, including empirical studies that demonstrate the positive impact of technology on student engagement, skill development, and overall learning outcomes. Additionally, case studies highlight successful implementations of technological tools in diverse educational settings, providing valuable insights into best practices and challenges. Practical examples from real-world applications further illustrate how technology can be leveraged to promote active participation, personalized learning, and data-driven decision-making in physical education programs (Calabuig-Moreno et al., 2020; Tondeur et al., 2007).

Successful Practices

Different types of technology have been shown to be highly effective in enhancing student learning within physical education. Tools such as exergames, wearable devices, mobile applications, videos, activity monitors, and educational websites have been widely utilized to support various aspects of learning. The primary benefits of these technologies have been observed in the improvement of students’ physical health and motivation levels. For example, Potdevin et al. and Palao et al. found that video feedback significantly contributed to students’ progress in motor skills (Palao et al., 2015; Potdevin et al., 2018), athletic performance, and self-assessment. Also, McGann et al. reported that the use of exergames resulted in notable improvements in locomotor skills (McGann et al., 2020; Potdevin et al., 2018). Enhancements in learning have predominantly focused on the physical aspects, particularly in developing motor competence (Andrade et al., 2020). Regarding health-related benefits, studies indicate that exergames have a positive impact on self-esteem and mood (Andrade et al., 2020). Similarly, wearable fitness devices, which provide feedback on step counts and calorie expenditure, have encouraged young people to increase their levels of physical activity (Andrade et al., 2020; Goodyear et al., 2019). Additionally, technological resources have been proven to be valuable in enhancing students’ understanding of concepts such as energy balance and healthy dietary habits (Chen et al., 2015).

Given the increasing integration of technology in physical education, as mentioned, numerous studies have explored its effectiveness in enhancing student learning, motivation, and physical performance. Research has examined various technological tools, including exergames, wearable devices, mobile applications, video analysis, and artificial intelligence, each contributing uniquely to physical education settings. The following table presents an overview of recent studies from 2019–2024 that investigate the role of these technologies, their applications, and the key findings that highlight their impact on student engagement, motor skill development, and overall physical activity levels.

Authors and Year	Study Title	Aim of Study	Main Outcomes	Type of Technology
(Quintas-Hijós et al., 2020)	Analysis of the applicability and utility of a gamified didactics with exergames at primary schools: Qualitative findings from a natural experiment	Evaluates a gamified exergaming intervention, designed to improve children’s academic performance by focusing on understanding applicability and usefulness.	Being fun was the feeling that the students most frequently mentioned about the intervention. The attitudes shown by teachers and students were very positive.	Exergames
(Zhao et al., 2024)	Effects of exergames on student physical education learning in the context of the artificial intelligence era: a meta-analysis	Explores the promoting effect of exergames on student PE learning and the conditions in which the effect of exergames can be maximized.	Exergames effectively improved student performance in PE learning.	Exergames
(Garcia-Masso et al., 2023)	Effectiveness of Customized Exergames to Improve Postural Control in High School Physical Education	Determine the effectiveness of customized exergames, with different cognitive loads, on static and dynamic postural control compared with traditional exercises in a group of adolescents.	Exergames were more effective than traditional exercises for improving the dynamic aspects of postural control and stability in adolescents.	Exergames
(Marsigliante et al., 2024)	The Effects of Exergames on Physical Fitness, Body Composition and Enjoyment in Children: A Six-Month Intervention Study	To evaluate the impact of exergaming on physical fitness, body composition, and perceived enjoyment in elementary school children.	Exergaming offers benefits for physical fitness and body composition in children, while also enhancing enjoyment.	Exergames
(Papastergiou et al., 2021)	Introducing tablets and a mobile fitness application into primary school physical education	To assess the impact of the integration of tablets and a mobile application for fitness development on primary education students’ intrinsic motivation for the PE lesson.	Lessons yielded student satisfaction. Student interest and enjoyment after the lesson in which tablets and the app were used were higher than those after an equivalent lesson without technology.	Tablets and apps
(Koekoek et al., 2019)	Exploring students’ perceptions of video-guided debates in a game-based basketball setting	To explore how mutual agreement and accuracy of students’ perceptions of tactical aspects of a basketball game situation and students’ perceived learning outcomes are influenced by using a DI enriched with video footage.	Increased shared understanding regarding their perceived learning outcomes. Can support teachers in promoting students’ shared understanding of tactical learning objectives of games.	Tablets and apps
(Zulkifli & Danis, 2022)	Technology in physical education: Using movement analysis application to improve feedback on sports skills among undergraduate physical education students	To determine the effectiveness of the Coach’s Eye movement analysis application with the conjunction of a smart device integrated into physical education.	The adoption of a modified qualitative movement diagnosis model has increased the effectiveness of feedback and productivity.	Video App
(Laranjeiro & Albright, 2021)	Development of Game-Based M-Learning Apps for Preschoolers	To develop game-based learning apps, with content recommended in the Curriculum Guidelines for Pre-School Education (CGPE).	The four thematic apps, namely environment, health, citizenship, and professions, composed of a set of games, suitable for autonomous use for children or educational activities guided by educators in kindergarten.	Game-based learning apps
(Lobo et al., 2025)	Advancing Precision in Physical Education and Sports Science: A Review of Medical Imaging Methods for Assessing Body Composition	To provide an overview of the current state of medical imaging methods in body composition analysis.	The importance of using standardized protocols to improve the accuracy of body composition studies across populations and settings.	3D
(Komaini et al., 2024)	The role of virtual reality in enhancing motor skills in children: A systematic review	To analyze the implication of virtual reality (VR) in improving movement in children. This research uses a systematic review model.	Children show a positive response after receiving virtual reality, which can reduce physical, cognitive, and emotional stress.	Virtual Reality
(H. Guo & Zhang, 2021)	Online Evaluation System of College Physical Education Students Based on Big Data and Artificial Intelligence Technology	To provide better technical suggestions and means for the introduction of big data into physical education by studying the online evaluation system of college physical education students based on BD and AI technology.	The system can effectively evaluate the students’ tennis moves, saving 70% of the time compared with the traditional method.	AI
(Hsia et al., 2024)	AI-facilitated reflective practice in physical education: an auto-assessment and feedback approach	To develop a yoga automatic assessment and feedback system using AI technology to provide personalized feedback to engage individual students in reflective practice.	Adopting the yoga automatic assessment and feedback system for learning could significantly increase students’ yoga skills performance.	AI
(Ma, 2024)	Design and Deconstruction of the Intelligent System of College Physical Education in the Era of 5G + Artificial Intelligence	To explore the design of the intelligent framework for college physical education in the era of 5G and artificial intelligence.	The CPU occupancy rate reaches 44% when the traditional mode runs for 50 s, 49% when it runs for 100 s, 35% when the smart sports system runs for 50 s, and 42% when it runs for 100 s. The smart sports system occupies less CPU during operation, which improves the utilization of resources.	AI
(W. Yang et al., 2024)	Artificial intelligence education for young children: A case study of technology-enhanced embodied learning	To fill that gap by investigating how children were engaged in AI literacy activities that are supported by intelligent agents	Children could learn about AI through interaction with intelligent agents in embodied learning contexts.	AI
(Dergaa et al., 2023)	Using artificial intelligence for exercise prescription in personalised health promotion: A critical evaluation of OpenAI’s GPT-4 model	To assess the efficacy of exercise prescriptions generated by OpenAI’s Generative Pre-Trained Transformer 4 (GPT-4) model for five example patient profiles with diverse health conditions and fitness goals	The AI model could create general safety-conscious exercise programs for various scenarios	AI

Exergames are among the technologies that have been the subject of the most extensive research. The influence of exergames on various aspects of pupil engagement and performance has been investigated by numerous authors. For example, Quintas-Hijós investigated the practicality and efficacy of gamified exergames in primary schools. She discovered that students found the intervention to be enjoyable, and both the students and instructors expressed favorable attitudes (Quintas-Hijós et al., 2020). Similarly, Marsigliante et al. reported that exergames were instrumental in enhancing the physical fitness, body composition, and enjoyment of children over the course of a six-month intervention (Marsigliante et al., 2024). In the interim, Zhao conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the more comprehensive influence of exergames on physical education learning, and she determined that they significantly improve student performance (Garcia-Masso et al., 2023). In contrast, Garcia-Masso examined the efficacy of customized exergames with varying cognitive demands in enhancing dynamic stability among adolescents, demonstrating that they were more effective than traditional exercises in improving postural control (Garcia-Masso et al., 2023).

In addition to exergames, physical education experiences have been improved through the use of mobile applications and tablets. Papastergiou investigated the incorporation of fitness apps and tablets into primary education, discovering that their utilization enhanced students’ intrinsic motivation and enjoyment in comparison to conventional lessons. In the same vein, Koekoek et al. investigated the utilization of video-guided debates in a basketball context and discovered that they facilitated the development of a shared comprehension of the tactical aspects of the game among students (Koekoek et al., 2019). Furthermore, Zulkifli et al. conducted a study on the efficacy of movement analysis applications, including the Coach’s Eye app, in enhancing the quality of feedback on sports skills. The results indicated that the application improved the accuracy of movement diagnosis and productivity (Zulkifli & Danis, 2022). Also, new technologies, such as 3D medical imaging and virtual reality (VR), are also being integrated into physical education. Lobo et al. reviewed the use of medical imaging methods for body composition analysis, emphasizing the importance of standardized protocols to enhance accuracy in different populations and settings. Komaini et al. analyzed the role of VR in improving motor skills in children, reporting that VR interventions positively influenced movement and helped reduce physical, cognitive, and emotional stress. These studies underscore the growing role of technology in physical education, with exergames, AI, 3D imaging, and VR offering promising avenues for enhancing student outcomes, motivation, and engagement across various educational settings (Komaini et al., 2024; Lobo et al., 2025; Omarov et al., 2024b).

Another emerging technology in the field of physical education is AI. Guo et al. created an online evaluation system for college students that was AI-based. This system significantly reduced the time required for assessment in comparison to traditional methods. In the same vein, Hsia et al.’s study implemented an AI-driven yoga assessment and feedback system that significantly enhanced the performance of pupils in yoga by providing personalized feedback (Hsia et al., 2024). Ma (2024) investigated the effects of integrating AI with 5G technology, demonstrating that AI-based intelligent sports systems optimize resource utilization in comparison to conventional methods (Ma, 2024). Yang and collaborators concentrated on the development of AI literacy in young children, emphasizing the role of embodied learning with intelligent agents in enhancing their comprehension of AI concepts. In conclusion, Dergaa et al. conducted a critical evaluation of the efficacy of AI-generated exercise prescriptions using OpenAI’s GPT-4. She determined that the AI model offered safe and adaptable programs for a variety of health characteristics (Dergaa et al., 2023; W. Yang et al., 2024).

In general, the studies collectively underscore the expanding role of technology in physical education, with exergames, mobile applications, and AI demonstrating substantial potential to improve learning outcomes, motivation, and engagement at various educational levels.

6. Practical Applications for Integration

The incorporation of technology into physical education offers promising prospects for improving student engagement, skill acquisition, and overall educational results (Mhlongo et al., 2023). Successful implementation necessitates meticulous preparation and alignment with educational objectives. Educators must evaluate optimal strategies for the efficient integration of technology, ensuring that digital technologies enhance rather than supplant conventional educational approaches (Timotheou et al., 2022). Choosing suitable technology by curricular goals, resource availability, and student requirements is crucial for optimizing advantages. Moreover, achieving equilibrium between traditional pedagogical methods and contemporary techniques helps preserve the fundamental principles of physical education while capitalizing on the benefits of technological progress.

According to the study by Thelma et al. (2024), successful implementation must align with educational objectives, involve continuous teacher training, and include assessment and feedback mechanisms (Thelma et al., 2024). The selection of technologies should be based on their ability to enhance teaching without causing distractions, fostering a more dynamic and inclusive learning experience. Additionally, balancing innovative methods with conventional pedagogical practices is essential to ensuring that technology serves as a support rather than a replacement for the educational process. In this regard, the following section presents best practices, criteria for selecting tools, and strategies for achieving a balanced and effective integration into the physical education curriculum (Thelma et al., 2024).

Banville et al. highlighted that various elements impact physical education teachers’ choices in curriculum design, including educational policies, available resources, and student needs. Their recent study pointed out that students indicated the highest levels of engagement with jogging/running, walking, basketball, and cycling during their absence from school. The prevalence of a team sports-oriented curriculum continues despite substantial evidence suggesting it may be erroneous (Banville et al., 2021). Aligning this with the technology era, The ExerCube—a mixed reality exergame—yielded positive effects on concentration, flexibility, and divided attention, indicating that exergaming can be an innovative training approach for team sports athletes (Heilmann et al., 2023). In this case, virtual reality exergaming is favored by adolescents and their parents, as shown by Farič et al. His study reported authentic body movements following the curricula objectives, accurate visuals, incremental gaming complexity, novel challenges, in-game rewards, and multiplayer capabilities, and the capacity to integrate with real-world physical activity monitors has demonstrated an enhancement in user engagement (Farič et al., 2021). Nonetheless, expenses, discomfort from virtual reality headsets, and motion sickness have been recognized as barriers to adoption. Despite this, the research is forceful. A study utilizing the Fit-Fun exergame examined the impact of sit-up exercises on students’ performance, where movements triggered in-game actions, fostering engagement through competition. The findings indicated that exercise health beliefs positively influenced gameplay interest but reduced competition anxiety, while a strong practicing attitude enhanced exergaming performance (Hong & Hung, 2024). Additionally, augmented reality also may revolutionize sports education by enhancing learning experiences, therefore augmenting student engagement and excitement. Omarov et al.’s study advocates for the incorporation of augmented reality technologies into educational curricula to improve learning dynamics and outcomes in sports education (Omarov et al., 2024a). However, a comparative study analyzing curriculum documents from Australia, Brazil, and New Zealand found that, while there is a strong emphasis on using technology to foster critical thinking about media content, there is less focus on understanding media as a language for social interaction, communication, and physical education curricula transformation, equipping students with the skills to critically assess digital content and make informed decisions about their health and physical activity in an increasingly media-driven world (Araújo et al., 2021). Also, teachers perceived markedly poor skill levels regarding digital technology in physical education (Wallace et al., 2023). This fact hinders the effective integration of technology in their classrooms. This is due to both personal barriers (lack of training and resistance to change) and institutional constraints (lack of resources and specific training) (Wallace et al., 2023).

6.1. How to Achieve Integration and Issues to Solve

Numerous educators consider themselves deficient in the requisite abilities to proficiently integrate technology into their classrooms, a limitation stemming from both personal impediments (insufficient training and reluctance to adapt) and institutional limitations (inadequate resources and targeted training programs). The application of technology in physical education is inconsistent and frequently functions solely as a replacement for conventional teaching methods, such as simply displaying films, rather than utilizing its full capacity for transformative learning experiences.

Notwithstanding these limitations, technology possesses the capacity to augment student motivation, contingent upon its intentional and systematic use. In the absence of explicit learning objectives, technology may serve as a distraction rather than a productive instructional instrument. Wallace et al. identify the absence of specialized professional development programs aimed at enhancing digital competencies for physical education instructors (Wallace et al., 2023). A significant number of the offered training sessions are deemed overly simplistic and fail to meet the particular requirements of the discipline. Furthermore, obstacles in classroom management emerge when technology is implemented without explicit usage protocols, resulting in off-task conduct and diminished student engagement (Franklin & Harrington, 2019; Ünlü, 2008).

To tackle these issues, various pragmatic techniques may be employed. Initially, continuous and specialized digital training programs must be established to assist physical education instructors in progressively enhancing their technical competencies (Akram et al., 2022; Alainati et al., 2023). These programs ought to evolve via several tiers, enabling educators to transcend fundamental digital literacy and proficiently use technology in their pedagogical methodologies. Second, technology must be strategically integrated into the curriculum through active techniques that augment learning rather than simply complementing conventional instruction (Akram et al., 2022). Instruments like exergames, motion analysis programs, and feedback platforms can enhance student engagement by facilitating self-assessment and the advancement of motor skills.

Furthermore, reducing distractions is crucial for achieving efficient technological integration. Implementing explicit classroom regulations and utilizing organized interactive technologies, such as gamified learning platforms, can enhance student concentration while capitalizing on the advantages of digital resources. Furthermore, educational institutions must allocate resources towards the requisite technology infrastructure, guaranteeing equitable access to digital tools specifically designed for physical education environments. A crucial strategy is to engage students in the selection and design of digital learning activities, thus enhancing their engagement and motivation while aligning technology with their interests and requirements (Mulato et al., 2024).

To ensure technology favorably influences physical education, it is crucial to develop teachers’ digital skills, align technology with explicit pedagogical goals, and guarantee that its application boosts student engagement and learning results rather than functioning as a mere novelty.

Long-Term Sustainability of Technology in PE Curricula

While technology integration in PE offers numerous benefits, its long-term sustainability depends on institutional support, continuous professional development, and technological adaptability. Schools and policymakers must ensure that digital tools remain accessible, relevant, and adaptable to evolving pedagogical needs (Strielkowski et al., 2024). One challenge is the rapid obsolescence of digital devices, which may require periodic updates and infrastructure investments. Moreover, teacher training programs should incorporate ongoing professional development to help educators stay updated with emerging technologies and effective implementation strategies. Additionally, cross-sector collaborations between educational institutions, tech developers, and public health organizations can facilitate the co-creation of sustainable, evidence-based digital solutions for PE (Aditya et al., 2022; Gkrimpizi et al., 2023).

7. Conclusions

Technology-enhanced pedagogy in physical education (PE) presents substantial benefits, particularly in fostering student engagement, self-regulation, and personalized learning experiences. By incorporating digital tools such as wearable devices, gamified platforms, augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR), and artificial intelligence (AI), educators can create more interactive and data-driven learning environments that encourage active participation and enhance motor skill development. These technologies also facilitate real-time feedback, allowing students to monitor their progress and adjust their efforts accordingly, ultimately fostering greater autonomy in physical activity.

However, the successful implementation of technology in PE requires strategic planning, extensive teacher training, and equitable access to digital resources to prevent widening the digital divide. Educators must be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to integrate these tools effectively into their pedagogical approaches, ensuring that they complement, rather than replace, traditional teaching methods. Additionally, addressing concerns related to student data privacy and ethical considerations is crucial to creating a safe and secure learning environment.

Regarding limitations, the variability in study methodologies and sample populations across the included research may impact the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the reliance on the published literature introduces potential publication bias. The rapid evolution of digital tools also presents a challenge, as emerging technologies may not yet be reflected in the current body of research. Future research should explore the long-term impact of technology-enhanced learning in PE, particularly in terms of its effects on physical activity levels, cognitive engagement, and students’ overall well-being. More studies are needed to establish best practices for integrating technology sustainably within different educational contexts, considering factors such as age, skill level, and curriculum requirements. Furthermore, efforts should be made to develop strategies that mitigate accessibility disparities, ensuring that all students—regardless of socioeconomic background—have equal opportunities to benefit from technological advancements in PE. Also, policymakers should consider investing in teacher training programs, ensuring equitable access to digital resources, and establishing ethical frameworks for data use in PE. By reinforcing the link between digital innovation and physical activity outcomes, this study contributes to evidence-based practice, providing educators and decision-makers with insights into sustainable and effective technology adoption in PE curricula.

By addressing these challenges, technology can be leveraged as a powerful tool to enhance both the quality and inclusivity of PE instruction. When used thoughtfully and effectively, it has the potential to revolutionize how students engage with physical activity, promoting healthier lifestyles and improving learning outcomes. The key lies in finding a balanced approach that maximizes the benefits of technology while maintaining the fundamental value of physical education as a discipline that fosters movement, collaboration, and lifelong well-being.