Using Technologies to Spatialize STEM Learning by Co-Creating Symbols with Young Children

Abstract

There has been an increasing number of calls to apply new technologies to learning contexts for STEM education. However, limited studies have explored the role of technology in bridging teachers and children to create STEM knowledge collaboratively. Therefore, early childhood teachers encounter challenges integrating digital technologies to support children’s STEM learning. The challenges include developing effective and innovative scaffolding strategies to incorporate digital technology and visualize the processes of using technologies in children’s STEM knowledge building. This study reports on an in-depth exploratory case study from a kindergarten classroom in Hong Kong, exemplifying a new approach to integrating digital technologies within spatialized STEM learning. The case selected continuity learning episodes from a spatially directed STEM learning unit on making a safe traffic city. Under digital technology-integrated scaffolding, the teacher and children co-created a traffic symbolic system by designing symbols of landmarks, developing and applying spatial language, making maps and traffic games with rules. The thematic analysis was adopted to analyze the teachers’ STEM activity plans and reflective reports. The finding indicated that the process through which the teacher and children collaboratively created STEM knowledge via technology-integrated scaffolding involved recalling spontaneous understanding about everyday concepts, exploring ideas in authentic contexts, sorting and organizing their collected information, and identifying and correlating abstract concepts with corresponding everyday practices. The children required two levels of technology-integrated scaffolding strategies to engage in STEM knowledge collaborative creation: scaffolding for technology using and scaffolding through use of technology. Three novel roles of technology emerged that transform learning from knowledge delivery to collaborative creation in inquiries STEM tasks for young children: application, mediator, and catalyst. The study also highlights teachers and children transforming into new roles in knowledge collaborative creation processes in spatialized STEM learning under the technology-integrated scaffolding strategies. Moreover, it spotlights the reconceptualization of the STEM learning culture in the technology-integrated knowledge co-create classroom from teacher-centered to more open child-centered learning.

1. Introduction

Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education has received increasing attention in early childhood education (ECE). STEM education in the early years has been conceptualized as ‘… a context for designing active learning ecologies that connect with children’s natural curiosity about their world. It engages children in authentic investigations, using critical and creative thinking in systematic ways to build knowledge, acquire skills and cultivate confident dispositions for learning’ (Yelland, 2021). Research showed that promoting spatial learning in children provides an opportunity to improve and strengthen their STEM achievements, such as mathematics ability (Cheng & Mix, 2014), computational thinking (Berson et al., 2023), and scientific concepts understanding (Bower, 2017). Spatialized STEM learning is one of the effective ways to support children’s spatial learning (Newcombe, 2017). Spatialized STEM learning is suggested to use appropriate teaching techniques to help children in using diverse spatial tools (e.g., spatial language, maps, comparisons, hands-on manipulation, movement, and sketching) to build knowledge (i.e., a symbolic system) (Newcombe, 2017, 2018). For example, children use spatial language to discuss a route design on a digital map (visual system) (Hu et al., 2023). Spatialized STEM learning allows educators to design and integrate school-based spatial learning plugins into the school curriculum (Newcombe, 2017).

Building knowledge such as a symbolic system in the STEM context is a process from exploring and understanding authentic phenomena to generating and using diverse abstract symbols (Newcombe, 2017). In this process, a fundamental aspect of spatial STEM learning is considering and exchanging symbolic system-related significant concepts, conceptual structures, and practices across STEM disciplines (States, 2013). According to Vygotsky (1978), the process of building knowledge entails a progression from exploring everyday concepts to transforming scientific concepts.

Studies demonstrated that in building a symbolic system, children are required to apply a series of actions to construct the process (Enyedy et al., 2012; Hawes et al., 2017; Ningsih et al., 2019). In the study by Ningsih et al. (2019), children were asked to create an ideal 3D Pop-up general map that harmoniously and reasonably integrates non-physical conditions (e.g., tribes, art, and transportation) with natural physical conditions (e.g., mountains, oceans). Children acquire everyday spatial concepts in the first stage through direct interaction with their world. They investigate and understand the current situation and causes of the relationship between Indonesia’s actual human and physical geography through reading, real-life observation, and discussions (Ningsih et al., 2019). It helps the children’s spontaneous generation of spatial information understanding to explore ideas in authentic learning contexts. Then, the children organize and categorize the acquired information of non-physical and natural physical conditions for future use (categorizing spatial information). In the second stage, the children are guided to identify and explore abstract concepts or theories related to human geography by placing 3D symbols (e.g., houses) on the map (Ningsih et al., 2019). Fleer (2009) has indicated that everyday concepts are the core basis for children to understand scientific concepts. Finally, children apply and test the spatial concepts of human geography by creating new maps using 3D symbols (Ningsih et al., 2019). It enhances children’s understanding and applications of the spatial relationships between landmarks (understanding the meaning of symbols in the authentic world by making and applying them). However, the process is challenging to observe and render visible (Hu et al., 2023; MacDonald & Huser, 2020; Schwarz et al., 2017).

Building a symbolic system in STEM learning contexts also requires learners and educators to co-create knowledge processes (Nikolopoulou, 2023). Interdisciplinary learning in STEM education allows learners to transfer spatial knowledge across disciplines, use diverse methods to apply existing spatial knowledge, and establish connections between ideas. For this to be successful, STEM educators have responsibilities to create spatial-oriented contextualized and authentic real-life settings where children can employ various skills and processes to test hypotheses, enhancing children’s ability to generate novel ideas to address meaningful spatial-related real-world problems (Schwarz et al., 2017; Sullivan & Bers, 2018). For example, 39 children aged 4-7 years manipulated a range of tangible materials (e.g., square tiles, multi-linked cubes, magnetic shapes, and foam square mats) to solve math-related spatial authentic tasks such as adjusting the position of square tiles or increasing the number of square tiles to make two “gardens” of the same size (Hawes et al., 2017). They explored various forms of geometry-related symbolics (e.g., assembling 2D/3D configurations) and gained an understanding of abstract concepts of geometry (e.g., symmetry) in spatial learning (Hawes et al., 2017).

1.1. New Trends Incorporating Technologies in ECE Spatial Learning

Adopting technology to solve authentic problems in the STEM context helps to make STEM learning spatialized. When considered in STEM learning, technology can broadly include digital and non-digital tools in authentic tasks. This paper uses the term technology to refer to digital technology. Hu et al. (2024) identified three types of digital technologies that support ECE STEM learning. These include robotics, programming (e.g., coding software or kits), and multimedia (e.g., TV, video, and mobile applications). Appropriate digital technology can prepare 3D material and visualize STEM learning contexts that encourage children to build and use a symbolic system. In transforming everyday spatial concepts into scientific spatial concepts, 3D printers help children create 3D symbols to build a bridge between authentic information (e.g., sea star) and abstract concepts (e.g., symbol of sea star), coding toys support children’s design programming to represent their understanding of the meaning of symbols in the authentic world (Hu et al., 2024). Digital technologies offer children inbuilt scaffolding to process authentic information and build knowledge (Yelland & Masters, 2007).

Digital technologies can help children build symbolic systems by engaging with multimodal texts and opening new visualized paths for interactions and learning. For example, Berson et al. (2023) used a programmable robot to investigate a particular technology’s impact on children’s STEM learning. The study found that children directing the programmable robot-integrated STEM curriculum content had diverse and interactive learning opportunities that developed their spatial reasoning skills and could construct meaning about the role of their body in the space with the robot. The children could also verbally discuss aspects of their actions with the teacher to gain a more in-depth understanding of spatial concepts. The study demonstrated that multimodal interactions (e.g., verbal discussion, physical interaction with robots) among teachers, children, and programmable robotic devices visualized the invisible reasoning processes and thus enhanced understanding of abstract spatial concepts. It also identified that the teacher’s scaffolding impacted the delivery of STEM concepts, which supported an improved understanding of the abstract concepts (Berson et al., 2023).

A meaningful combination of adopting or reinforcing technology helps to transform the roles of educators and children in the symbolic system co-creating process. For example, children actively use a coding robot (Bee-Bot) to program a route between landmarks (Hu et al., 2023). In the interactive, fun, and authentic multimodal experiences provided by technology, children’s roles are enhanced and active (Yelland & Masters, 2007), and the scaffolding effect of teachers in exploring and imparting spatial concepts to children is enhanced (Berson et al., 2023). Incorporating technology provides new opportunities to reflect and reconsider the role of children and educators in STEM learning contexts.

1.2. Scaffolding Children’s Inquiry in the STEM Learning Context

Teachers play a crucial role in integrating technologies and selecting appropriate scaffolding strategies to optimize the effectiveness of ECE spatial learning in the STEM context. This integrated approach reconceptualizes the collaborative relationships between technology, children, and teachers (Hu et al., 2024). Here, teachers are decision-makers in choosing the types of technology and how to use it. The types of technology teachers select and apply in teaching activities directly affects how children learn through technology and interact in learning activities (Kimmons et al., 2020). On the other hand, teachers’ reasonable integration of appropriate technology can also expand scaffolding and learning patterns from a sociocultural perspective (Yelland & Masters, 2007). Scaffolding is a frequently employed teaching strategy in early childhood education (Yelland & Masters, 2007). It supports children’s learning in their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (Zurek et al., 2014). The ZPD is defined as the range of learning potential for children to acquire new knowledge or solve problems in learning tasks, unaided or with the purposeful assistance of a peer or teacher (Beed et al., 1991). Scaffolding has several core characteristics: collaborative interaction, its application within the children’s ZPD, and its gradual removal as the child’s capabilities strengthen as they experience the process (Eshach, 2011; Van de Pol et al., 2010; Wood & Wood, 1996). Scaffolding is embedded in teacher–student interactions, focusing on enhancing students’ metacognitive, cognitive, and affective engagement (Van de Pol et al., 2010). Van de Pol et al. (2010) outlined an analytical framework encompassing various scaffolding strategies, including instructing, modelling, questioning, explaining, providing hints, and offering feedback.

Technology serves as a valuable scaffolding resource in a technology-enhanced learning context, offering timely and practical support to students (Cuthbert & Hoadley, 1998). Computer-based technology has assisted in understanding complex concepts through visualization and concretion, as well as taking over time-consuming tasks during inquiry (Edelson et al., 1999; Hu et al., 2023; Kim & Hannafin, 2011; Marbach-Ad et al., 2008; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996; Yelland & Masters, 2007). In preschool STEM classrooms, portable and age-appropriate digital devices have expanded the scaffolding roles of technologies (Hu & Yelland, 2019; Yelland & Masters, 2007). However, children with limited technological experiences may find it challenging to interact with scaffolding resources, emphasizing the need for learning processes to be relevant to developing technical skills and enhancing scientific thinking (Bureau, 2016; Schneider et al., 2005; Yelland & Masters, 2007).

The study described in this paper offers empirical examples of building a symbolic system under the STEM context in preschool classrooms within two technology-enhanced scaffolding patterns: scaffolding through technology and scaffolding for technology use. These patterns employ various means such as feedback, hints, instruction, explanation, modelling, and questioning.

1.3. Context of the Study: Early STEM in Hong Kong

In 2015 and 2020, the government of Hong Kong proposed policies emphasizing promoting STEM education in primary and secondary schools (Bureau, 2020; Council, 2017). However, it was felt that these policies did not adequately address the issue of teaching STEM in early childhood education. Despite this, kindergartens in Hong Kong have already incorporated awareness of STEM-related learning areas. The Curriculum Guide of 2006 and 2017 included learning areas for mathematics, science, and technology (Hu & Yelland, 2017). Nevertheless, the fragmented approach to ECE STEM education in Hong Kong was without sufficient policy support, which may have been the primary reason for the slower development in the area compared to countries and regions that have successfully established early STEM education programs and provided professional development opportunities for teachers in educational environments, such as Australia, the United States, Canada, and Singapore.

It has been suggested that ECE teachers have limited scaffolding strategies for using technology in their pedagogical repertoire due to the limited curriculum guidance they have received to date. For example, teachers mainly used structured play and guided practice to support children learning STEM language or related skills via STEM toys (Yang et al., 2023). Digital technology is still regarded as more of a teaching aid for teachers and a technological product for children, respectively (Hu & Yelland, 2019). For example, teachers are organizers who prepare technology for STEM activities, motivators who encourage and motivate children to learn or train children how to use technology as coaches or guides (Biggs, 1998). Children mostly use the basic functions of technology to assist learning, such as documentation using a digital camera to document images, inquiring by using a digital map to find a place, and exploring by using a digital microscope to observe a leaf (Hu & Yelland, 2019). Limited studies have demonstrated the role of teachers, children, and technology in working together in one STEM learning context to support the co-creation of STEM knowledge in Hong Kong.

Furthermore, Hu and Yelland (2017) discovered that the use of technology by ECE teachers in STEM teaching primarily follows a teacher-centered approach. Teachers were expected to be all-knowing and were required to deliver and provide the knowledge pre-set rather than scaffold children to develop according to individual learning progression. This was attributed to the influence of Asian culture, which tends to shape the curriculum design and pedagogy of STEM education as being predominantly didactic and traditional in focus. Within such a learning environment, the teacher–student interactions are characterized by hierarchical and collective dynamics (Yin, 2014). Similarly, teachers reported that they were required to implement the STEM curriculum designed by the school leader, even though they regarded some of the learning objectives as inappropriate for their children’s development (Hu & Yelland, 2019).

Accordingly, two specific questions guided this research study:

• What approaches do early childhood teachers employ to incorporate technologies to spatialize STEM learning?
• How do technologies facilitate the transformation of early childhood teachers’ roles from knowledge delivery to co-create new knowledge in spatialized STEM learning?

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Design

The present study used an exploratory case study design (Yin, 2014) to investigate kindergarten teachers’ approaches to integrating technologies into their program and how they understood and incorporated the co-creation of knowledge with the children in their class. The choice of an exploratory case study was to support the in-depth investigation of the interaction and discursive practices concerning the impact of a particular study context (Yin, 2018). Previous studies also illustrate that exploratory case studies can effectively address the research questions on how technology might be embedded in teaching to maximize learning. Using the contextualized lens of exploratory case study to analyze discursive dialogue and practices from a specific case, this study was designed to contribute to the detailed description of the interactive relationships between children, the teacher, and diverse technological resources.

The cases were selected from a set of STEM learning tasks from a large-scale STEM project, which contained a series of activities about designing a traffic-safe city. In these activities, one teacher and 31 children engaged in STEM activities incorporating symbolic representations. The learning unit was designed to support developing an understanding of the role of symbols, including words and graphics, to convey specific information. In this context, it was by recognizing actual traffic signs, exploring the meaning and functions of symbols in a particular context, organizing and interacting with a 2D map, solving authentic problems that arose in situ, and making 3D symbols of the original ideal traffic-safe city. The whole learning process involved both the teacher and children interacting with digital technologies such as digital maps, cameras, and digital toys. The same teacher implemented the STEM activities over three weeks for a specific group of children in a local kindergarten in Hong Kong.

2.2. Participants

The study is part of an ongoing large-scale project that examines different aspects of STEM education in early childhood education in Hong Kong. A total of 12 project schools were invited to participate in the project. All the participating teachers reported having no formal STEM training before. Due to the aim of this study being to explore spatial learning under the ECE STEM context, the case of the teacher designing a learning unit themed “Traffic-safe City” was intentionally selected.

The case can best be described as a kindergarten class in Hong Kong that runs a specifically designed STEM program. The participants were an ECE teacher and 31 children in her class. The participating teacher had a 4-year bachelor’s degree in early childhood education and relevant professional background experience in the area. In addition, the children in the class were between 3 and 4 years old and were native Chinese speakers. This selection allowed us to explore, in-depth, how the teacher integrated technology into STEM teaching and how the children interacted with and responded to various technologies in a specific cultural and linguistic context. With such a sample, we aimed to investigate the interactive relationship between teachers, children, and technology in the process of building STEM knowledge. This specific case study design allowed us to collect detailed data to promote a deeper understanding of the uniqueness and cultural context of STEM knowledge construction in kindergartens in Hong Kong.

2.3. Data Collection

This study collected two types of data. We wanted to deeply analyze the interactions between teachers and children in the STEM activities, including the teacher’s STEM activity planning and reflective reports. The STEM activity plans are a continuous learning unit designed by teachers based on the children’s developmental level in the classroom. The STEM learning unit included 18 STEM activity plans, which provided the structure and learning objectives of the activities used in the study. Each STEM activity contained planning documents for the learning context designed by the teacher to implement the activity (e.g., authentic problems need to be solved), as well as detailing the pedagogical strategies and learning materials that were selected.

Teachers wrote reflective reports after implementing the activities to investigate the essential dynamics of implementing STEM activities. In the reports, teachers described in detail their evaluation of the effectiveness of the implementation of the STEM activities they designed, as well as their thoughts on the activities that are worth continuing to promote and need to be improved. One or more classroom cases supported each evaluation or reflection. The classroom cases included an overview of the activity, a description of the learning context, conversations between teachers and children in building STEM knowledge, and photos of teachers and children using technology during the activities. Before collecting the data, the research team explained to teachers that the data would be used for research. Teachers voluntarily chose and signed the ethics form. Considering the core target was to understand the role of technology in spatializing STEM learning, the case especially selected spatial learning closely related to the map-making learning unit “Traffic-safe City” in this study after the research team’s initial reading and review.

2.4. Data Analysis

Given the crucial goal of developing an in-depth understanding of the embedded learning culture in early STEM classroom practices, significant exploratory efforts were devoted to operationalizing the contributors to the STEM learning culture. In the exploratory study, a practical and well-established framework can function as the core underpinning to support the development of operational concepts (Clarke & Braun, 2017). Since the existing literature did not have appropriate coding schemes to interpret this innovative exploration, two coding schemes were developed by the research team based on data from the pilot studies and combined induction from previous literature: (1) the processes of children co-creating knowledge and (2) scaffolding by the teacher and the technology. The two coding schemes developed adopted a theory-driven inductive approach (Syed & Nelson, 2015). The coding schemes were generated based on the findings of the research team’s pilot studies and the data of this study, and the identification and naming of themes were based on the theoretical perspective (Syed & Nelson, 2015).

The first coding scheme, “The processes of children’s co-creating knowledge,” focused on children’s learning. The coding scheme was generated in three steps. First, inspired by the pilot studies (Hu et al., 2023; Yelland, 2021), the children’s STEM learning was considered a process of connecting daily life experience with novel scientific knowledge to build up their own understanding rather than fragmented and episodic. Children’s learning progress was also demonstrated through their corresponding action performance (Hu et al., 2023; Yelland, 2021). The scoping review of 22 ECE STEM empirical studies supports the implications (Hu et al., 2024). Thus, the processes of children’s co-creative knowledge were structured with three types of indicators: “Process,” “Actions,” and “Description of children’s learning performance.” For example, in the pilot ECE STEM study (Hu et al., 2023), three children co-created their symbolic system about ocean animals. They first used a 3D printer to explore, design, create, and engage with 3D symbols of ocean animals (connect daily experience). Subsequently, they used the technology, or a digital platform, to actively investigate phenomena they regard as interesting (e.g., the impact of ocean pollution on the decline of marine animal populations). They used different senses, conducted experiments, and communicated with adults or peers to explore the reasons behind them (generate scientific knowledge). Once they had a solid understanding of the problem or challenge, they could begin to apply the appropriate technology to create original 2D or 3D models, as well as generate new ideas or processes to solve the problem (problems).

Second, the theories of building knowledge (Vygotsky, 1978) were adopted as the primary guiding framework for this study because this study aims to explore how technology supports pedagogical approaches and empowers teachers to help children build STEM knowledge. The five processes of children’s co-creation knowledge were considered based on the theories of knowledge-building (Vygotsky, 1978) and developed scientific concepts from everyday concepts (Fleer, 2009): Process 1, spontaneous understanding of everyday concept; Process 2, exploring ideas in the authentic world; Process 3, sorting and organizing information; Process 4, identification of abstract concepts or theory; and Process 5, correlating the abstract concepts with corresponding practice. Processes 3 and 4 often involve iterative interactions, so we used vertical double-sided spikes to represent the relationship in the coding scheme. The three stages of children using technology to build knowledge by Kimmons et al. (2020) were combined to help define their actions in building STEM knowledge in the technology-integrated learning process to bridge STEM knowledge building and children’s actions in technology-integrated learning: Process 1, observing and reading; Process 2, investigation; Process 3, experimentation; Process 4, communication, and Process 5, producing artifacts and solving problems. Third, on this basis, to interpret the data more concretely and unify the thinking and understanding of data coders, we also deductively captured the “Description of children’s learning performance” from the selected case (Berson et al., 2023; Hrynevych et al., 2021; Kankaanranta et al., 2017; Yelland & Masters, 2007) to bridge the gaps between theoretical concepts and classroom practices. (

Table 1. The processes of children co-creating knowledge.

Process	Actions	Description of Children’s Learning Performance
1. Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts	Observing	(1) watch/look at the things or the environment on or via a technology (2) listen to the things or the environment from or via technology
	Reading	(1) recognize the meanings of simple words on or via technology (2) recognize the meanings of symbols or signs on or via technology
2. Exploration of ideas in the authentic world	Investigation	(1) generate new understanding in a digital environment using the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch (2) explore new ways to interact and understand digital worlds
3. Sorting and organizing information	Experimentation	(1) investigate how things work via/ incorporating technology (2) testing and hypothesis-making to discover/ learn what happens by using technology
	Communication	(1) negotiate with adults or peers through or via technology (2) discuss with adults or peers through or via technology (3) share ideas with adults or peers through or via technology
4. Identification of abstract concepts or theory
5. Correlating the abstract concepts with corresponding activities/practice	Producing artifacts	(1) develop a personality working process based on the experience by using technology (2) make or construct an original 2D or 3D model by using technology
	Solving problems	(1) understand problems by identifying, or searching for, relevant information using technology (2) represent the problem and plan a solution using technology (3) carry out a plan to address the problem using technology

).

The second coding scheme, “Scaffolding by the teacher and the technology,” was instigated from the scaffolding analytical framework provided by Cuthbert and Hoadley (1998). The six scaffolding patterns include instructing, modelling, questioning, explaining, providing hints, and offering feedback (Cuthbert & Hoadley, 1998). Our pilot studies show that technology use plays an unignored role in the STEM learning ecosystem in the early childhood field. The research shows that technology can be transformed into a diverse and flexible role of tools children need according to the teachers’ different teaching goals in the activity designs (e.g., using a camera to record the experience of a field trip, using the photo records to observe the details of the plants) (Hu & Yelland, 2017). Technology use positively scaffolds children’s acquisition of new ideas in STEM contexts (Yelland & Masters, 2007) and promotes applying young children’s STEM interdisciplinary knowledge in authentic learning (Hu & Yelland, 2019). In addition, the interactive patterns of three vital roles between teacher, children, and technology might be embedded in knowledge co-creation processes and linked with the teacher’s implemented scaffolding approaches (Hu et al., 2023). With this inspiration, we explored a new understanding of the scaffolding analytical framework (Cuthbert & Hoadley, 1998). Studies (Hu et al., 2023; Hu & Yelland, 2019; Hu & Yelland, 2017; Yelland & Masters, 2007) vividly explain each scaffolding pattern.

The studies also deliver another essential point that ECE teachers have to prepare children’s technology-using skills before they can explore knowledge or ideas independently (Hu et al., 2023; Yelland & Masters, 2007). As such, we determined the detailed descriptions of “Teacher’s technology-aided scaffolding strategy” to be two stages: “Scaffolding for technology used by teacher” and “Scaffolding through use of technology.” However, we also used other representative research of technology-aided scaffolding STEM learning (Edelson et al., 1999; Kim & Hannafin, 2011; Marbach-Ad et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2024) to approve the second coding scheme to prevent this coding scheme from falling into our research bias (

Table 2. Scaffolding by teacher and technology.

Means	Teacher’s Technology-Aided Scaffolding Strategy
	Scaffolding For Technology Use by Teacher	Scaffolding Through Use of Technology
Feedback	Giving feedback on children’s technology use	Prompt responses to children’s performance through technology
Giving Hints	Offering hints and advice on the next steps of technology usage	Presenting clues or suggestions to follow in the process
Instructing	Illustrating the procedures of technology usage explicitly	Specific explanations and instructions about necessary steps
Explaining	Clarifying the specific steps of technology usage or offering more comprehensive guidance	Conveying detailed information or representations of abstract concepts
Modeling	Demonstrating the processes of technology usage	Demonstrating how to practice particular skills
Questioning	Asking questions regarding the technology to support children’s acquisition of technical skills	Showcasing a series of visual representatives (symbols) when asking questions to guide children’s problem-solving and creating knowledge

). After initially developing two coding schemes, three research team members tested and evaluated them using this case study. After three rounds of discussion, the detailed description of the indicators was revised to be more straightforward.

Two approaches were adopted to ensure coding consistency: (a) reconciliation of differences by consensus (Bradley et al., 2007) and (b) third-party resolution (Syed & Nelson, 2015). After initially developing the coding schemes, reconciliation of differences by consensus (Bradley et al., 2007) was used to obtain the only coding schemes agreed upon by the team. First, two core members coded six randomly selected teachers’ activity plans, and 65% of the results were in agreement. Then, the coding schemes were revised after the two coders discussed the reasons and considerations for the differences between the two coding results. To avoid bias, the third core member of the team was invited to verify the results (Syed & Nelson, 2015). This team member had more than 15 years of experience in qualitative data coding and analysis. They coded three randomly selected subsets of the selected data to verify the coding scheme’s credibility and consistency after consensus. Finally, the two coders randomly selected and coded three teachers’ activity plans simultaneously for a second reliability check of the coding schemes. Intercoder reliability can be assessed by selecting new data (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Daher et al. (2022) used third-party resolution (Syed & Nelson, 2015) to examine the reliability of coding schemes between coders in an interview with two primary teachers on the impact of online learning on children’s learning engagement.

Following this, the two members used thematic analysis (Clarke & Braun, 2017) to analyze the data and completed the coding process according to the two established coding schemes. The teacher’s perspective and the children’s actions were coded separately rather than interleaved. This was to prevent the data coder from being biased against the coding results of one party (e.g., teacher) by another party (e.g., children) during the coding process. The analysis process was divided into five steps: (1) data familiarization: two members reviewed the reflection reports and activity plans together to gain initial understanding; (2) preliminary coding: when conducting preliminary analysis of the data, the data were categorized according to the detailed description indicators in the coding scheme; (3) advanced coding: this step was based on the preliminary coding and further traced to the broader themes of the previous layer. The relevant interaction patterns and teachers’ scaffolding methods were subject to secondary upgraded classification; (4) cross-validation: by integrating different data sources (such as activity plans and reflection reports), the coding results were verified and supplemented to ensure the reliability of the analysis; and (5) coding results: after all the data were coded, the actual STEM learning context in the case was combined to infer the interaction between teachers, children, and technology, as well as to determine the impacts. In these steps, our goal was to ensure a systematic and transparent coding process to deeply understand the role of digital technology in early spatialized STEM learning practices.

3. Results

To address the research questions, three activities were selected to analyze the processes inherent to children co-creating knowledge with teachers’ scaffolding strategies applied in a spatialized STEM learning context. These activities are part of a “Traffic-safe City” project closely related to children’s daily lives. The children were asked to complete STEM tasks that involved recognizing traffic signs around their school, investigating the traffic environment surrounding their school, and designing an ideal traffic-safe city.

3.1. Activity 1: Co-Recognize Symbols on Digital Maps

In this activity, the digital map was introduced by teachers to support children’s spatial exploration around school. Throughout the activity, children were guided to consistently interact with the digital map (Google Maps) to identify the shapes and meanings associated with various traffic signs in their everyday lives through searching and discussing. To promote children’s active roles in knowledge co-creation processes, teachers invited children to use the digital map to observe traffic signs and transport facilities surrounding the school together. Several learning episodes revealing the crucial scaffolding roles of technologies and teachers on children’s engagement in knowledge co-creation were captured for further elaboration.

In the following learning scenario, technologies were integrated at two levels to promote children’s active roles in the processes of exploring in an authentic context to co-create a traffic symbolic system. At the first level, the teacher employed Scaffolding for technology using strategies (i.e., Questioning and Giving Hints) to empower children’s efficient explorative skills of the digital map use on the tablet for their following authentic investigation (a child using voice function to search a location on digital map). For example, the teacher used guiding questions (e.g., What can help us to search for schools?) as a guide to prepare children with fundamental knowledge of identifying the function of voice search and skills of manipulating the tablet to search locations. The Scaffolding for technology using strategies helped the teacher prepare children to use the digital map to explore abstract concepts or acquire new knowledge later (see

Table 3. The children were scaffolded to use the digital map.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-creating Process
Scenario 1: A child used the voice function of the digital map to search a location	Teacher	What can help us to search for schools?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding for technology use
	Child 1	Voice search
	Teacher	Where is the voice search function?	Giving Hints strategy of Scaffolding for technology use
	Child 2	[Points to voice search icon] Here.
	Teacher	What to do next?	Giving Hints strategy of Scaffolding for technology use
	Child 2	Press it and say (school name) kindergarten.

).

After the children were familiar with using the digital map to locate and investigate the environs around the school, the teacher employed the Questioning and Feedback strategies of Scaffolding through Use of Technology to activate children’s existing everyday knowledge and also prepare children’s active engagement in the subsequent knowledge co-crating processes to identify the traffic signs depicted on the digital map’s screen and interpret their meanings (see

Table 4. Co-recognition of traffic signs on a digital map.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 2: Children recognized a traffic sign on the digital map	Teacher	[point to a road sign on the screen] What shape is this sign?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 5	Rectangle.		Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts
	Teacher	What does it write above?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 5	ABC Road.		Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts
	Teacher	Yes, it turns out this is a street sign. It tells us what the road’s name is.	Feedback strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology

).

In Learning Scenario 2, children engaged in the process of activating spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts (i.e., names of different shapes), the first step of the co-creating knowledge process. Here, the teacher as a learning collaborator engaged children to interact with the digital map through a series of guiding questions. The interaction (identifying the “voice” symbol for searching and recognizing the meanings of traffic signs on the digital map) could also prepare children for the following processes of exploration and constructing connections between abstract and real objects in knowledge co-creation.

3.2. Activity 2: Co-Connect the Spatial Relationship Among the Landmarks via Digital Toys

In this activity, the teacher first introduced the digital camera to enable children to record spatial information (three landmarks, including road facilities, traffic signs, and buildings) during their field trip. The digital recordings of different landmarks were printed as tangible photographic evidence for the children’s subsequent symbol categorizing and 2D map-making activities (place pictures of various landmarks on their corresponding locations). In the following map-based activities, the Bee-Bot was provided to children to complete the route-planning task on their 2D map to address the teacher’s guiding questions and build up their original symbol systems (see

Table 5. Children used digital cameras to record landmarks on the field trip.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 3: Children used digital cameras to document landmarks during the field trip	Teacher	[Points to the Culture Museum] What is it?
	Child 1	[Looks at teacher] This is the Culture Museum. I have been there with my mom before.		Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts
	Child 2	[Use a digital camera to take pictures of the Culture Museum] We can draw pictures in it.		Exploration of ideas in the authentic world

).

In Learning Scenario 3, the children participated in the field trip to recall their spontaneous everyday concepts about the landmarks and simultaneously explore different characteristics of different objects in the authentic environment to advance their knowledge co-creation process. Teachers encouraged children to use a digital camera to record landmarks.

This subsequently promotes the implication of the Questioning and Explaining strategies of Scaffolding through the technology by using a printed picture from a digital camera (Scenario 4). In this process, the children and teachers collaboratively promoted traffic symbol creation by connecting the tangible symbols made by printed photos from the digital camera with the corresponding landmarks observed in practice. Then, children were invited to organize a 2D map collaboratively by applying these tangible symbols in situ. The children sorted and organized the distinct features of different types of landmarks and categorized them on the 2D map. The children demonstrated their understanding of the representative relationships between the landmarks in the environment with landmark symbols on the map in the collaborative making of the 2D map (see

Table 6. Co-connect spatial relationships among landmarks.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 4: Children categorized symbols for 2D map-making	Teacher	[Presents a school picture] What is it?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 3	[Observe the photo] This is the school.		Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts
	Teacher	[Place the photo of a school next to the photo of the Culture Museum] What do you see when you walk further from the school?	Explaining strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 4	[Observe the photo] The Culture Museum.		Correlating the abstract concepts with corresponding activities/practice

).

In the activity to design and implement route planning using coding toys, children and teachers worked together to label symbols of landmarks they were familiar with on a grid map. Teachers act as learning partners to provide them with appropriate tools and corresponding explanations about using them. For example, teachers provided children with coding toys and illustrated that the button pressed once would move it forward one step (one grid).

In Learning Scenario 5, the teacher used the Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology use to help children use coding toys (Bee-Bot) to plan routes for tasks. Children’s problem-solving guided by the teacher’s questions promoted children’s knowledge co-creating process by deepening their understanding of the connections between the abstract concepts (symbols and lines on the 2D map) and the authentic practice (landmarks and roads in a real-world context). In addition, the teacher, as the guide to propose a series of questions for designing a route plan from the coding toys’ current position to the target location, also promoted children’s knowledge of co-creating processes from their initial symbol system building (construction of 2D map) to the consolidation of spatial connections among different symbols (understanding the relative location of various objects through manipulating the Bee-Bot) (see

Table 7. Children used Bee-Bot to complete route-planning tasks.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 5: Children programmed Bee-Bot to implement route design	Teacher	How many times do you have to press to get the Bee-Bot from the current position to the school (school name)?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology use
	Children	[Use hands to measure the distance] Two times.		Correlating the abstract concepts with corresponding activities/ practice

).

3.3. Activity 3: Co-Construct Spatial Games and Rules via Programming

The antecedent of children’s co-creation of the ideal traffic-safe city was enacted in Activity 2, in which the children noticed that their “vehicles” (Bee-Bots) frequently crashed into each other. The teacher took this opportunity to initiate a discussion about traffic safety with the children. They encouraged children to recall their previous riding experiences and their perception of the traffic conditions to reflect the reason for collision and traffic safety. In this case, the traffic control facilities and signs on the roads were attributed as significant contributors to helping prevent frequent collisions. To further develop their previous 2D map, the children designed and constructed an ideal, or practical, traffic-safe city to minimize collisions. While revising the map, the teachers and children collaborated to discuss the desired facilities and their locations (landmarks) in this ideal city. Teachers function as learning partners to facilitate their exploration of the necessary traffic signs and their functions and support them in transforming the 2D map into a 3D representation.

In this learning process, technology again plays a role in directing operations and the allocation of resources. It involves integrating two levels of technology scaffolding strategies that are interleaved. The following extracts of the learning process made visible demonstrate the interaction between technology-integrated scaffolding strategies and children’s co-creation process development.

In Learning Scenario 6, children were engaged in planning their ideal traffic-safe city under the teacher’s Scaffolding through technology strategies. The pictures of traffic facilities and buildings around the school captured by digital cameras were used to help children recall their memories from the field trip. Subsequently, the teacher used Questioning and Feedback strategies to assist the children in connecting with the objects inside the photos with abstract names (see

Table 8. Co-recall the spatial information of the field trip.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 6: Teacher showed a photo recorded by one child to help the whole class of children recall the spatial information from the field trip	Child 7	I want to display this.
	Teacher	What is this?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 7	It’s a place to eat.		Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts
	Teacher	That is a cha chaan teng.	Feedback strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology

).

In planning a rational traffic safety city, children’s knowledge of the co-creating process was advanced in the group discussion section. They actively organized and sorted the spatial information of landmark photos taken during field trips and then demonstrated their understanding of the photo’s meaning as visual representations (pre-stage symbols) of landmarks (e.g., a place to buy clothes). After the teacher provided timely feedback, the children developed their abstract concepts or related vocabulary during the discussion.

In transforming a 2D map into a 3D representation, the teacher used two strategies of Scaffolding through technology to co-create 3D symbols. She first used the Giving Hints strategy of Scaffolding through technology to encourage children to use different materials to help the photos stand up step by step. Subsequently, the teacher used Explaining strategies of Scaffolding through technology several times to inspire children to revise the solutions based on their experiences of failure.

The teacher and children’s spatial knowledge co-creating process was advanced from 2D to 3D symbols by testing different materials to support the photos and continuously improving their solutions. This process enables the teacher to act as a facilitator to guide children to sort and organize information and correlate abstract concepts with corresponding practice, leading to co-creating solutions for making 3D landmarks (see

Table 9. Co-transformation of a 2D map into a 3D map.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding Strategy	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 7: The process of co-creating 3D symbols	Teacher	How can I make the photo of the building stand on its own?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology
	Child 1	Use feet.		Spontaneous understanding of everyday concepts
	Teacher	But the photo doesn’t have feet. What can I do? Is there anything in the classroom that can help the photo stand up?	Giving Hints strategy of Scaffolding through technology
	Child 1	Stick it with tape. [Use stick to help photos stand up]		Correlating abstract concepts with corresponding practice
	Teacher	Are there any toys we usually play with that can stand on their own?
	Child	Yes.
	Teacher	[Invites the children to select toys that can help] come and try.	Giving Hints strategy of Scaffolding through technology
	Child	[Use blocks and attempt to stand the photos up] not working		Sorting and organizing information
	Teacher	What else can help us?	Giving Hints strategy of Scaffolding through technology
	Child 2	Blue Tack.		Sorting and organizing information

).

After creating the 3D landmarks, the teacher employed Scaffolding through technology strategies to co-create a traffic symbolic system with the children. The teacher used Questioning strategies of Scaffolding through use of technology (e.g., What colour is the road? How can we make the road appear black on the map?) to inquiry the children to observe the features of the traffic facilities (e.g., color, shape) and their locations on a 360-degree photo of their school’s surroundings on the digital map.

The scaffolding strategies helped the children gradually break down the features of the abstract concept of “road” and its spatial representation. They then used spatial language to discuss and share the information they observed on the digital map. This interaction demonstrates that the children repeatedly engage in the processes of identifying abstract concepts or theories and sorting and organizing information. They gradually develop an understanding of the features of the abstract concept of “road” and build cognitive representations with “visualized” image-like labels.

Based on their newfound understanding, the children embarked on the process of correlating abstract concepts with corresponding practice. They created traffic signs for the map and used coding toys to test their updated and enhanced 3D map (see

Table 10. Co-making and co-testing of a 3D map.

Learning Scenario	Person	Talk [Action]	Teacher and Technology Scaffolding	Children’s Knowledge Co-Creating Process
Scenario 8: Children making traffic signs and testing the map with Bee-Bot	Teacher	What color is the road?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 6	Black.
	Teacher	How can we make the road appear black on the map?	Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology
	Child 6	We can color it with crayons.		Correlating abstract concepts with corresponding practice

).

4. Discussion

In previous studies, the use of digital technologies by ECE teachers and children for learning in Hong Kong was considered separately rather than in a coherent and unified learning system incorporating technologies (Biggs, 1998; Hu & Yelland, 2019; Hu & Yelland, 2017). It is hard for children to apply the technologies teachers selected to build or generate new STEM knowledge. Spatialized STEM learning through map-making activities exemplifies the extensive use of various digital technologies by teachers and children to comprehend the meaning of symbols, explore their concrete functions within specific and interconnected contexts, and create 3D symbols for problem-solving. Teachers and children used digital technologies individually and/or in combination throughout different stages of learning. This signifies a departure from the previously separate use of technology by teachers and children in ECE STEM education in Hong Kong (Biggs, 1998; Hu & Yelland, 2019; Lerman & Borstel, 2003; Yang et al., 2023). Instead, they interact and mutually influence each other in developing shared STEM concepts and knowledge. Consequently, by closely examining the details of this case involving technology-enhanced ECE STEM learning, we are prompted to identify three novel roles of digital technology in the visualizing process of co-creating symbols: application, mediator, and catalyst.

4.1. Viewing Technology as an Application/Resource to Gain an Understanding of the Meaning of Symbols

Technology can support children in gaining new understandings through authentic experiences under specific technology-integrated scaffolding strategies such as the teacher using Questioning strategies of Scaffolding for technology using to support children in developing a spontaneous understanding of some everyday spatial concepts and exploring and testing specific spatial ideas. The lived experiences of learners in both individual and collaborative ways act as the foundation for new learning opportunities. The learner’s active role in this authentic environment under teachers’ scaffolding through the use of technology, evoking prior experiences, or providing physical experiences for new concepts effectively promotes learners’ active engagement (Fleer, 2009; Geist, 2016). In this spatialized STEM learning case, children went on a field trip around their school and community. This allowed them to prepare spatial information about landmarks. During the trip, children observed and spontaneously grasped the features of landmarks, such as their shapes, size, and color, which laid the groundwork for the subsequent discussions about their visit and how it might be interpreted (Nikolopoulou, 2022). Meanwhile, the children used technology (digital camera) to document objects and landmarks accompanied by teachers’ scaffolding strategies of “Explaining strategy of Scaffolding through the technology” and “Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology”. The recorded resources (photos) were later combined with coding toys (Bee-Bot) to explore and test their ideas through active and effective interactions. Collecting information using the camera allows teachers to understand children’s views, enabling children and teachers to interact with the same visualized abstract concepts such as traffic signs. The role of technology as an application is a response to the fundamental need for its use (Hu & Yelland, 2019; Lowrie et al., 2018). Engaging young children with digital technologies begins with learning how to use them (Early Childhood STEM Working Group, 2017).

4.2. Technology as a Mediator to Create Symbols

The application component of the learning activities emphasizes the significance of a constructivist learning environment, which extends beyond the application of traditional classroom pedagogies, in providing learners with suitable opportunities to use technology and coordinate newly developed knowledge and skills through a mediator under the teacher’s technology-integrated scaffolding strategies in novel conditions (Frick et al., 2013). Technology serves as a mediator, empowering children and assisting teachers in the process of co-creating new spatial knowledge. In organizing a 2D map, children and teachers play roles in solidifying symbols in their memory as they record and recall their photos. Teachers no longer transmit knowledge but actively create it collaboratively with the children in specific learning spatial scenarios. Children manipulate technology under the teachers’ Scaffolding through the use of technology (e.g., “Explaining strategy of Scaffolding through the technology,” “Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology”), such as a digital camera, and the camera records their knowledge during the learning journey. The engagement demonstrates that a mediator aids active collaboration between learners and teachers. The innovative digital camera application under the scaffolding strategies bridges the knowledge co-creation process. Children possess the authority and competence to provide information based on their observations, surpassing their language competence and existing knowledge in their developmental stage. This innovative case highlights the learning needs of children’s inquiry. The visible spatial learning content allows teachers to scaffold children’s spatial learning through the Questioning and Explaining strategies of Scaffolding through technology, guiding them in developing a symbolic system.

Our study also engaged children in an authentic task involving the resolution of car crashes (using digital toys) on a 2D map. To address the task, the children co-created an alive traffic symbolic system that employed spatial terminologies, the system of relations, and features of various symbolic representations of landmarks. They also used reasoning skills to plan and explain their proposed routes to the treasure. Technology (digital maps and Bee-Bot) under scaffolding through the use of technology (Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology use) aided children’s reasoning and discussion processes, thereby expanding the contexts in which they could apply spatial skills to a more authentic environment encompassing diverse supplemental resources.

4.3. Technology as a Catalyst for New Knowledge in Symbol Creation

Technology under the teachers’ scaffolding strategies also catalyzes children’s generation of STEM concepts. In the STEM learning tasks of transition from 2D representations to 3D models, the teacher used the scaffolding strategy of “Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through technology use” (e.g., “What is it?” [show the photo of a clothing store]), and abstract symbolic representations were introduced to advance children’s understanding of the concept (e.g., the road and the buildings). Although children are expected to acquire symbolic representations as the universal language to be applied in broader contexts, directly introducing symbolic representations [representative resources] without the assistance of pictorial representations may induce misconceptions in young children (Newcombe, 2017). The symbolic representations in our study were the 3D models of landmarks constructed by children, which were developed based on photographs of landmarks taken from different angles. Specifically, children were receptive to the “Giving hints strategy of Scaffolding through technology use” to create profiles of the specific landmarks on the 3D models made with STEM-making tools (i.e., blocks, blue tack). Under the multiple technology-integrated scaffolding strategies, children were provided with a chance to enhance their capabilities to composite and deconstruct 3D configurations (Newcombe & Shipley, 2015).

Thus, teachers are able to visualize abstract concepts by using both “Scaffolding for technology use by teacher” and “Scaffolding through use of technology” to co-create visual symbolic systems with children (Newcombe, 2017). In this case, the teacher used photos of landmarks so young learners could view them in context. For instance, the digital map can provide a street view to show the landmarks, which provides children with a virtual environment to understand their community. This allows children to interact with these symbols in their everyday lives and visualize more abstract concepts (Fleer, 2009). In our case, technology played the role of catalyst under the two types of technology-integrated scaffolding strategies (e.g., What can help us to search for schools? [present the digital map on a tablet], Questioning strategy of Scaffolding for technology; [point to a road sign on the screen] What shape is this sign? Questioning strategy of Scaffolding through Use of Technology). The role of catalyst helps children master STEM concepts more effectively through multi-dimensional learning methods and interactive experiences in spatialized STEM learning scenarios, such as multi-level learning, the combination of symbols and objects, and the use of virtual environments. Technology can provide children with multi-level learning opportunities (e.g., 2D and 3D learning scenarios) through virtual environments (e.g., digital maps and street views) to help them visually see the concrete representation of abstract concepts (e.g., 2D—>3D symbols). After the strategy of Scaffolding through use of technology (e.g., introducing children to how to use a digital camera), digital resources (e.g., photos of the school) created by children using technology based on authentic objects (e.g., school, an authentic landmark) help them connect abstract symbols with authentic objects, thereby understanding abstract concepts’ real and concrete meaning.

4.4. Transforming the STEM Learning Culture in Hong Kong Kindergartens

Technology under appropriate scaffolding strategies can help to transform the STEM learning cultures in HK kindergartens. The learning processes in technology-rich STEM activities are iterative rather than linear (Biggs, 1998). Compared with traditional classroom teaching, the role of teachers has changed due to the newly conceptualized three roles for technology. Thus, children also demonstrate a shift in their interests in different learning situations, revisiting the information they collected and building upon their knowledge in interchangeable dialogues beyond traditional textbook-based activities. In this study, teachers were found to design and implement STEM activities more effectively when technology played an application role. Teachers use technological resources, such as digital maps and cameras, to enhance the learning experience, enabling children to explore STEM concepts in a dynamic environment. This role shift makes technology an essential part of teaching, and teachers become guides in applying technology.

The mediator role for technology supports teachers in providing children with opportunities or context to deepen their understanding of STEM concepts. Technology mediates teachers to build a bridge between children and knowledge in teaching. By using various symbolic representations (such as photos, text, and maps), teachers are able to help children connect abstract concepts with their everyday lives. This mediating role enhances children’s understanding of STEM concepts and promotes interaction between teachers and students, making constructing knowledge a cooperative process. For example, the teacher uses questions mediated by a digital map to build the children’s understanding of the concept, such as the meaning of the landmark.

Moreover, as a catalyst, the role of technology promotes more flexible learning opportunities in the classroom. Teachers use technology to create an interactive and exploratory learning environment that encourages children to participate actively, ask questions, and find solutions together. This catalyzes children’s interest in learning and enables them to apply what they learn in real situations. Specifically, in constructing a 3D map and travel testing, children create 3D symbols and reorganize traffic signs’ locations to help solve authentic problems related to car accidents. This demonstrates that children possess the capability to apply knowledge in play-based activities, including identifying landmarks, planning routes, and expressing their thoughts with oral language. The learning process is visible and tangible, and the co-creating content knowledge is flexible within an authentic STEM learning context. Teachers and children leverage their new roles for technology to flexibly and dynamically transform their learning roles in STEM activities, thereby creating, or generating, new knowledge and concepts. This adds support and inspiration to the possibility of a gradual transformation of Asia’s STEM learning culture from a teacher-centered, didactic approach (Yang et al., 2023) to a more open, children-centered, inquiry-based approach.

We put forward three practical suggestions based on considering the positive role of digital technology in teachers’ effective scaffolding strategies for children and teachers to co-create STEM knowledge. First, schools are suggested to establish a supportive environment for technology use in STEM teaching to encourage teachers to explore and apply it, such as introducing or purchasing digital technologies suitable for children according to the actual situation of the school and children and providing related professional development training. The school leadership team could encourage and support teachers to use technology in teaching, for example, to encourage teachers to organize a co-teaching team for technology-integrated scaffolding development and exchange of ideas. Second, teachers are advised to investigate and understand the children’s background in the classes, including age appropriateness, digital skill preparation levels, and daily life experiences. On this basis, teachers choose appropriate digital technology and help children prepare and support technology-integrated STEM learning in a systematic and level manner according to children’s STEM learning needs and progress. Third, it is advisable to unite children’s families to support and cooperate with children’s technology-integrated STEM learning preparation. Schools and educators can invite parents to assist children in participating in digital technology-integrated STEM learning by extending their learning tasks at home. Parents are advised to use digital technologies (e.g., camera function in mobile phone, speaker) or digital resources (e.g., teacher record educational videos) commonly used at home to help children achieve STEM learning objectives.

5. Conclusions

This exploratory case study, which was conducted in a Hong Kong kindergarten classroom, represents a significant step towards showing how innovative STEM learning scenarios within Asian learning contexts can support new learning. This study demonstrates the potential for involving young children in knowledge co-creation in STEM learning scenarios by highlighting the possible shift from traditional teacher-directed approaches to more dynamic scaffolded approaches incorporating technologies. This study bridges the gap in our current research by showing that innovative digital technology-integrated STEM learning environments can provide authentic opportunities for very young children to build on their understanding of STEM concepts through their everyday experiences. The study identifies understanding the use of symbols as a visible learning outcome. The application of symbols in everyday scenarios represents a play-based collaborative create knowledge process. Involving children in creating such representations particularly highlights the process of knowledge creation as active meaning-making and discovery. The teacher’s scaffolding approaches show the potential impact on early STEM thinking, starting from children’s learning experience, and co-creating symbols to make meaning through technologies. The teacher also shows the multiple scaffolding techniques that can be used, moving beyond traditional teaching skills, by identifying and reflecting on children’s learning needs and using the appropriate scaffolding strategy to co-create learning. Technology’s unique role also provides experiences that make children’s learning visible using simple technologies, such as digital cameras.

Since local kindergartens in Hong Kong implement the school-based curriculum under the curriculum guide proposed by the government, the school culture, teaching style, and children’s backgrounds of each school are significantly different. Therefore, this study only chose one class of children, and one teacher was selected to analyze the process of co-creating knowledge. Such a small sample size may affect the generalizability of the results. For example, such a sample limits the comparison of children and teachers of different ages, cultural backgrounds, or teaching styles, which may lead to an incomplete understanding of the co-creation process of knowledge. In addition, this single-class perspective may not fully reflect the effects of educational practices and technology applications on a larger scale.

However, it does provide essential implications for the future. Further in-depth data analysis showed that the knowledge co-creation process interactively shifts the roles of children, teachers, and technologies. Further implications will guide the teacher education programs and teachers in understanding that early STEM learning is no longer a knowledge-delivery activity. It drives a new culture to create learning experiences and make visible learning outcomes in a collaborative journey, where both children and teachers play active roles in building their knowledge in specific STEM learning contexts. The implication pushes us to consider that further research might focus on an in-depth and more detailed investigation of digital technology’s role in scaffolding children to engage in co-create STEM knowledge with adults. Two ideas might light up the future: one might consider a longitudinal study, which is observing small samples for long-term impacts, and the other one to understand the pedagogical changes under different types of digital technology (e.g., visual-driven type, hand-on-driven type) in children’s STEM learning.