The Influence of Short-Term Dance-Oriented Exergaming on Cognitive Skills and Psychological Well-Being of Adolescents

Abstract

The physical inactivity of adolescents and their sedentary lifestyle with profuse usage of screens has been a growing issue for the last few years. In contrast, there is some evidence that videogame-based exercising improves cognitive abilities and psychological well-being during growth and maturation. Therefore, there is a need for the wider exploration of innovation tools in physical education (PE) and extracurricular activities for schoolchildren. The aim of this study was to determine the change in psychological well-being and cognitive skills of adolescents when exercising is supplemented with videogame-based activity. The short-term physical activity (PA) program, initiated by in-service PE teachers (n = 3), involved 13–15-year-old adolescents (n = 63, of them 20 were boys) from one of biggest cities in Lithuania. The research subjects were participants of extracurricular exercise groups on a regular basis, attending their respective three-times-a-week sessions for 1 month. The first intervention group engaged in a 60 min functional training program (FT group, n = 31). The second group had 30 min of FT followed by 30 min of video-based dance class (FT + Just Dance group, n = 32). The Trail-Making test (part A and B), the Visual Digit Span test, and the Stroop test were performed to investigate students’ cognitive abilities. In addition, the WHO-5 questionnaire was used to analyse the respondents’ psychological well-being. When comparing pre- and post-intervention results, no changes were observed in the psychological state, visual–executive skills, and short-term visual memory in both groups. Reaction time improved significantly in both groups (p < 0.05). The working memory significantly improved in the FT + Just Dance group (p < 0.05). The implementation of videogame-based training, Just Dance, improved adolescents’ working memory, but had no effect on subjectively perceived psychological well-being.

1. Introduction

Decreased physical activity (PA), concurrent with the psychological stress of academic demands and responsibilities, negatively affects both physical and mental health during adolescence (WHO, 2021; Janssen & Leblanc, 2010). The lifestyle of teenagers is characterised by an increased time spent sitting and using screens, a trend identified as a critical public health concern. According to Guthold et al. (2020), 81% of school-going adolescents aged 11–17 worldwide are insufficiently physically active, with higher inactivity rates observed in girls (Guthold et al., 2020; Brazo-Sayavera et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2024). Physical activity levels often decline sharply between ages 11–12 and 15–16 (Brodersen et al., 2006; Hyde et al., 2023), persisting into early adulthood (Corder et al., 2019). Such insufficient PA exacerbates health risks, including Type 2 Diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and premature mortality (Anderson & Durstine, 2019). In Lithuania, physical inactivity among children and adolescents is notably high (Emeljanovas et al., 2022; Sukys et al., 2019). Furthermore, students in grades 8–12 exhibit even lower PA levels while spending more time on digital screens than younger peers, which coincides with frequent reports of irritability, nervousness, and low mood (Kviklienė et al., 2017; Lukoševičiūtė & Šmigelskas, 2022; Rutkauskaitė & Visockytė, 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic has further amplified these tendencies (Viner et al., 2022a, 2022b; WHO, 2022; Lukoševičiūtė & Šmigelskas, 2022; Rutkauskaitė & Visockytė, 2021).

Aerobic exercise is commonly recommended to mitigate mental disorders (Kandola et al., 2020; Hooda et al., 2024; Smith & Merwin, 2021). Regular PA stimulates brain areas (such as the hippocampus), linked to stress and anxiety regulation (Firth et al., 2018), improving physical fitness, and reducing stress levels in youth (Cocca et al., 2017). In one study, 12 weeks of increased aerobic activity alleviated symptoms of depression in adolescents, and conversely, adolescents exhibiting more stress were less physically active (Olive et al., 2016). A lower or optimal BMI has also been corelated with a diminished likelihood of depression in various studies (Bou-Sospedra et al., 2020; Amin et al., 2020; H. Cui et al., 2024). In general, the literature reports a robust association between PA and cognitive abilities, demonstrating that engaging in regular PA is crucial for promoting mental acuity and overall brain health (National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2010). In turn, these cognitive skills play an integral role in mental health, academic achievement, and subsequent labour market outcomes (Acosta & Muller, 2018; Lin et al., 2016; Zhao, 2022; Ozawa et al., 2022).

Maintaining attention and retaining new information appear increasingly difficult for children, signifying a general decline in attention span and memory performance (Schenarts, 2020; Opris et al., 2019). Members of generation Y, who were born in 1981–1996, are said to have an attention span of around 10 min, while Generation Z (born since 1997) may have an attention span of only around 6 min (Schenarts, 2020). Heightened exposure to rapidly shifting smart technologies likely contributes to this challenge. Indeed, children currently spend substantially more time online than their counterparts a decade ago, reflecting worldwide expansions in digital accessibility and use (Livingstone et al., 2019; Twenge & Campbell, 2018). According to Bates et al. (2020), children screen time increased by 20–66% during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Lithuania, the average time spent online by children prior to the COVID-19 was 2 to 4 h per day, with older youth spending more time online than younger peers (Grigutytė et al., 2018). Similar trends have been documented in other European countries (Smahel et al., 2020). Computer gaming is among the widespread online activities; time spent watching gaming videos or playing videogames has tripled since 2010 in some youth populations (Grigutytė et al., 2021). Adolescents have a fascination with the virtual world for its social opportunities, new challenges, and reward mechanisms (e.g., earning virtual prizes), reflecting robust activation of the brain’s reward system during this developmental window (Przybylski et al., 2010; Bediou et al., 2018; Pirrone et al., 2023; Boichuk et al., 2023). Consequently, teachers and coaches face growing difficulty in engaging children in physical activities, often compounded by outdated sports facilities and less appealing extracurricular programs that fail to pique student interest. Indeed, one-third of teenagers do not participate in after-school programs at all, and only about half of those who do choose physical activities (Sukys et al., 2019). Because adolescents devote considerable time to gaming, leveraging that interest through exergames may encourage greater PA participation (Vernadakis et al., 2018). For instance, Benzing and Schmidt (2018) found that videogame-based training fosters higher motivation and enjoyment to attend physical education or extracurricular sessions and remain active (Fröberg et al., 2017; Schwender et al., 2018). Active dance-focused games (like “Just Dance”) have specifically been shown to increase energy expenditure (Soares et al., 2021), potentially appealing especially to girls, who typically exhibit lower baseline PA levels but express interest in dance (McDonough et al., 2018).

The push for novel approaches in education and training is evident in recent research, which recognizes the importance of technology, gamification, and collaborative methods in improving engagement among children and adolescents (Vladova et al., 2023; Haleem et al., 2022; Beetham & Sharpe, 2019; Lampropoulos & Sidiropoulos, 2024). Studies indicate that exergames—fusing cognitive tasks (e.g., memory, decision-making) with bodily movement—can be beneficial for children’s cognitive development and psychological health (Andrade et al., 2019a, 2019b). For instance, a long-term intervention by Joronen et al. (2017) found that exergames delivered sustained benefits in emotional well-being, while Pallavicini et al. (2018) observed cognitive improvements in children using active videogames. Dance activities themselves may also help alleviate depressive and anxious symptoms in adolescents by fostering emotional expression and social connectedness (Zhang et al., 2021). An 8-month dance intervention even showed lasting gains in self-rated health for adolescent girls (Duberg et al., 2013, 2016, 2020). However, a 9-week “Just Dance” program, implemented for only 10 min, 5 days per week, did not significantly enhance cognitive measures of attention and memory in children aged 9–12—a result partially attributed to the brevity of each dance session (van den Berg et al., 2019). While dancing can combine cognitive and motor challenges to improve self-confidence and working memory (Oppici et al., 2020; Schwender et al., 2018), existing research underscores that session frequency, duration, and intensity all shape the extent of observed benefits (Serrano et al., 2021; Ludyga et al., 2016; Melero-Canas et al., 2021). A systematic review indicates that active videogames have a significant positive impact on young people aged 6–18, leading to improvements in attention, working memory, and motor planning skills (Serrano et al., 2021). Melero-Canas et al. (2021) implemented a combined intervention program in which one part of the sessions consisted of traditional PE lessons, and the other part incorporated active videogames. After 9 months of twice-weekly sessions lasting 55 min each, significant improvements in the cognitive abilities of schoolchildren were observed (Melero-Canas et al., 2021).

Against this backdrop, our research contributes to a growing body of evidence that embraces exergames as a means of tackling adolescent sedentary habits and fostering innovations in PE and non-formal education. We specifically examined a short-term, dance-oriented exergame intervention—“Just Dance”—integrated into extracurricular training for adolescents aged 13–15. By merging these adolescent-friendly gaming elements with established benefits of PA, we aim to clarify whether such programs can effectively enhance reaction time, attention, short-term and working memory, and self-perceived psychological well-being. In short, we hypothesize that supplementing traditional exercise with dance-based exergames may yield both cognitive and mental health benefits. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether “Just Dance” sessions, layered onto existing functional training, meaningfully improve adolescents’ cognitive skills and psychological well-being over a one-month period. Thus, we hypothesize that training supplemented with videogames will improve concentration, short-term and working memory, reaction time, and subjectively perceived psychological well-being in adolescents. The aim of this study was to determine the change in cognitive abilities and psychological well-being of teenagers after supplementing extracurricular training with a videogame Just Dance.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants and Research Organization

Based on the analysed scientific literature, a 4-week Just Dance training intervention was designed, consisting of dance sessions at least 3 times per week for 30 min. Initially, 67 adolescents aged 13–15 years (32% boys) who were participating in extracurricular exercise classes as part of non-formal education programs at a sports club in one of the biggest cities in Lithuania were enrolled in this short-term experimental study. Subjects were recruited from group training sessions for teenagers and from gym-based training individual attendees. There was no sport club admission fee for study participants. The inclusion criteria required participants to be physically healthy, with no documented cognitive impairments or chronic illnesses, and with sufficient English language proficiency to complete the Stroop test. Body mass index (BMI) was measured to capture basic anthropometric data; however, direct assessments of sexual maturation (e.g., Tanner-stage evaluations) were not performed. This decision was made to respect participant privacy and comfort in the after-school setting. We acknowledge that variability in pubertal development could influence certain physical or psychological outcomes, and this limitation should be noted for future investigations. The study lasted 4 weeks in November–December 2022. The 60 min training sessions were conducted in gym facilities by in-service PE teachers (n = 3) three times per week during after-school hours, i.e., between 3:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. (in total 12 sessions for each group, the attendance was tracked). The first intervention group (FT group) participants engaged in 60 min functional training sessions that included exercises using gymnastic balls, TRX straps, resistance bands, weights, and body weight. The second intervention group (FT + Just Dance) participants completed 30 min of functional training with their peers, followed by 30 min of active videogaming Just Dance (5–6 dance tracks of various styles per session) using a Nintendo Wii console, computer, TV screen, and motion-sensitive equipment (e.g., remotes). Both intervention groups exercised at an approximately moderate activity level based on teacher observation (heart rate ranging 140–160) with 1–2 min rest intervals. The random assignment was carried out to ensure no intentional skew. Because of relatively small subgroup sizes (especially for boys), a strict stratification by sex was not feasible. Intervention programs were carried out by professionals. Each had at least 5 years of PE teaching experience, and a bachelor’s or master’s degrees in Sport Science or Physical Education. All three teachers followed the same standardized training procedure for each intervention group to ensure consistent delivery of the protocol and minimize instructor-related variability (e.g., use of scripted session outlines, consistent class format, and shared planning before the study began).

During the first meeting, participants provided personal information, signed informed consent forms, and were randomly assigned to the FT or FT + Just Dance group through a drawing method. Each participant created a unique subject code consisting of the first letter of their first and last name and the number of their birth date. Participants provided their age and gender, and their height (cm) and weight (kg) were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI). Measurements were performed according to standard procedures described by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) (Marfell-Jones et al., 2012). Height was measured in an upright position using a SECA 214 stadiometer with an accuracy of 1 cm. Weight was measured with a Tanita SC-240MA device (Tanita Cooperation, Tokyo, Japan) with an accuracy of 0.1 kg. BMI was then determined by dividing the weight in kilograms by the square of the height in meters. At baseline, each participant completed the WHO-5 questionnaire assessing psychological well-being and underwent cognitive tests measuring attention, memory, and reaction speed. The tests included the Stroop test, Trail-Making test Parts A and B, and a visual digit memory test. The Stroop test was conducted in English, as all participants were proficient in English color names and did not object to taking the test in a foreign language.

During the second meeting, training commenced according to group assignments. Participant attendance was recorded throughout the study period. Four participants withdrew from the sessions or measurements, and were excluded from the final analysis for missing more than 20% of the training sessions, pre- and post-test meetings, etc. This exclusion rule followed the approach used by Melero-Canas et al. (2021). Consequently, the data from 63 participants who fully completed the study and underwent all necessary measurements were included in the final analysis: 31 of FT group (including 11 boys) and 32 of FT + Just Dance group (including 9 boys). The average age of the participants was 13.8 ± 0.8 years. The distribution by age in total group was as follows: 44.4% of the sample were 13 years old (n = 28), 28.6% were 14 years old (n = 18), and 27% were 15 years old (n = 17).

Post-intervention testing was performed following the 4-week intervention. Participants of both groups repeated the initial assessments, including the WHO-5 Well-Being Index, Stroop Test, Trail-Making test Parts A and B, and Visual Digit Memory test. The research was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles of scientific research defined in the Declaration of Helsinki, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality of data.

Baseline and post-test measurements (cognitive tests and questionnaire) were conducted by the principal investigators, who are experienced in educational or sport psychology testing. Before starting data collection, the research team underwent a calibration exercise to ensure consistent test administration. The testing session, comprising the WHO-5 questionnaire and the battery of cognitive tasks, lasted approximately 30–40 min for each participant.

An individual informed consent from each study participant and his/her parent or legal guardian was obtained. Subjects were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time. Personal data such as participant name, address, or other information, that could identify the subject, were not collected. The permission of the Lithuanian Sports University Social Research Ethics Committee (Nr. SMTEK-19; 21 February 2021) was obtained to conduct the research.

2.2. Instrumentation

The indicated tests assessed categories such as attention, short-term memory, and executive functions (e.g., reaction time). The Trail-Making test (TMT) Parts A and B were used to measure attention, processing speed, movement coordination, persistence, and reaction time (Özçetin et al., 2019). The test consists of two parts where participants are required to connect a series of 25 dots as quickly and accurately as possible. In Part A, the dots are numbered from 1 to 25, and participants connect them sequentially, with the time taken recorded using a stopwatch. Part B requires participants to alternate between numbers and letters in ascending order (e.g., 1A, 2B, 3C). Research indicates that Part A primarily assesses visual-processing speed, while Part B evaluates working memory and task-switching abilities. Together, these components provide a valid measure of cognitive function (Sánchez-Cubillo et al., 2009).

Visual Digit Span test. The numerical memory test is one of the most commonly used tools in neuropsychological research. It evaluates visual short-term memory, attention concentration, and working memory. In this study, we employed the digit-forward method, where participants were required to memorize sequences of numbers presented for 2 s each. Different time intervals were applied between the sequences. This test is suitable for children who can count, with some studies using it for participants as young as 6 years old (Guo et al., 2018). Results are typically optimal during adolescence and decline with age (Grégoire & Van der Linden, 1997). Adolescents in our study were awarded 1 point for each correctly recalled sequence. Research suggests that adults typically remember an average sequence of seven (±2) numbers. During adolescence, particularly from age 13, results often surpass those of young adults (Karakas et al., 2002).

The Stroop test assesses cognitive processes such as selective attention, focused attention, reaction time, distraction control, and information processing speed (Özçetin et al., 2019; Periáñez et al., 2021). In this study, the test was conducted on a computer using the platform www.psycho-tests.com. Computerized versions of the Stroop test are considered moderately reliable and suitable for use with children (van den Berg et al., 2019). During the test, a colored word (an English word such as “blue”, “green”, or “red”) was displayed on a white computer screen. The text color of the word differed from its semantic meaning (e.g., the word “green” displayed in red text). Participants were instructed to press the “1”, “2”, or “3” key on the left side of the keyboard to indicate the text’s color, ignoring the word’s meaning. The task consisted of 45 items, and performance was assessed by measuring the number of errors and reaction times, which were automatically calculated by the system. The computers used for the Stroop test included HP Laptop-17-cp0003ny, Asus Vivobook S15, and Dell Latitude 3420.

Psychological well-being was assessed using the WHO-5 Well-Being Index. This tool has demonstrated adequate reliability in screening for depression risk and is suitable for individuals aged 9 years and older (Topp et al., 2015). Widely utilized in global research, the WHO-5 has been translated into more than 30 languages. The Lithuanian version of the questionnaire was used in an international study developed by Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO) to evaluate the health behaviours of students aged 11–15 years (Slapšinskaitė et al., 2020). The WHO-5 consists of five statements rated on a six-point Likert scale: “all the time” (5), “most of the time” (4), “more than half the time” (3), “less than half the time” (2), “sometimes” (1), and “never” (0). The questions address aspects of psychological well-being, such as activity levels, energy, mood, inner peace, rest, and enjoyment of hobbies. Participants evaluate their current state compared to the past two weeks. The total score (ranging from 0 to 25) is multiplied by 4 to generate a final score, where 0 represents the worst perceived well-being and 100 represents the best. A score between 51 and 100 indicates good psychological well-being, a score between 29 and 50 suggests poor well-being, and a score of 28 or lower indicates a risk for depression (Jusienė et al., 2022).

2.3. Data Analysis

To analyse the data collected in this study, SPSS software (version 17.0) was used to conduct a series of quantitative statistical analyses. Descriptive statistics, including means and standard deviations, were calculated for all variables to summarize the data distribution. The significance level was set at p < 0.05, ensuring that only statistically meaningful differences were considered. The dependent variables were tested for normality, with no violations detected, allowing for the application of parametric statistical methods. To assess within-group changes over time in the both intervention groups, paired sample t-tests were performed to determine significant differences between pre- and post-intervention scores for cognitive and psychological well-being measures. A 95% confidence interval was used, ensuring the reliability of results. Effect sizes were calculated using Cohen’s D, where values of 0.20–0.49 indicate a small effect, 0.5–0.79 indicate a medium effect, and 0.8 and greater indicate a large effect (Sullivan & Feinn, 2012). To compare changes between groups, a repeated measures ANOVA was conducted, accounting for the interaction between time (pre- and post-intervention) and intervention type. Effect sizes were reported using partial eta squared (η²) to evaluate the strength of observed effects. The assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance were assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test and Levene’s test, respectively, confirming that assumptions were met for all dependent variables. In addition to analysing psychological well-being (WHO-5) as a continuous variable (range 0–100), we also performed a logistic regression by creating a binary outcome: scores ≥ 51 (good well-being) versus scores ≤ 50 (reduced well-being). This cut-off aligns with WHO-5 interpretation guidelines, whereby 51–100 indicates good psychological well-being, 29–50 reflects poor well-being, and ≤28 signals risk for depression (Topp et al., 2015). In our model, we included age, gender, BMI, and intervention type (FT vs. FT + Just Dance) as predictors, allowing us to examine whether these factors were associated with participants’ likelihood of scoring in the ‘good’ versus ‘reduced’ psychological well-being range.

3. Results

The descriptive data of the study participants are presented in

Table 1. Age and anthropometric data of study participants (presented as mean ± SD).

Variables	Boys			Girls			Total
	Intervention Group			Intervention Group			Intervention Group
	FT (n = 11)	FT + JD (n = 9)	Total (n = 20)	FT (n = 20)	FT + JD (n = 23)	Total (n = 43)	FT (n = 31)	FT + JD (n = 32)	Total (n = 63)
Age (years)	13.7 ± 0.9	14.1 ± 0.6	13.9 ± 0.8	13.7 ± 0.8	13.9 ± 0.9	13.8 ± 0.9	13.7 ± 0.8	13.9 ± 0.8	13.8 ± 0.8
Height (cm)	167.4 ± 7.2	177.2 ± 5.0 **	171.8 ± 7.9	163.8 ± 7.8	165.7 ± 5.9	164.8 ± 6.8	165.0 ± 7.6	168.9 ± 7.7 *	167.0 ± 7.9
Body weight (kg)	57.2 ± 7.4	70.9 ± 12.5 **	63.4 ± 12.0	54.0 ± 7.3	55.9 ± 10.1	55.0 ± 8.8	55.1 ± 7.4	60.1 ±12.6	57.7 ± 10.6
BMI (kg/m2)	20.4 ± 2.0	22.5 ± 3.7	21.4 ± 3.0	20.1 ± 1.4	20.3 ± 3.1	20.2 ± 2.4	20.2 ± 1.6	20.9 ± 3.4	20.6 ± 2.6

Note: FT group—functional training group; FT + JD group—functional training + Just dance group; BMI—body mass index; *—significantly different from FT group (p < 0.05); **—significantly different from FT group (p < 0.01) presented bold.

. The total sample comprised 63 participants (FT group: n = 31, FT + JD group: n = 32). The average age (13.8 ± 0.8 years) and BMI (20.6 ± 2.6 kg/m²) were consistent across the groups, indicating no statistically significant differences with respect to gender or intervention type. The FT + JD group exhibited significantly greater height compared to the FT group (168.9 ± 7.7 cm vs. 165.0 ± 7.6 cm, p < 0.05), but mainly due to its variance in boys (177.2 ± 5.0 cm vs. 167.4 ± 7.2 cm, p < 0.05). Similarly, body weight of boys was also significantly higher in the FT + JD group (70.9 ± 12.5 kg) rather than the FT group (57.2 ± 7.4 kg, p < 0.05).

Table 2. Pre- and post-intervention results in cognitive testing and psychological well-being of study participants in gender groups (presented as mean ± SD).

Variables		Boys (n = 20)	Girls (n = 43)	Total (n = 63)	Cohen’s d
Trail-Making test Part A (ms)	Pre-I	22.3 ± 4.4	22.2 ± 4.1	22.2 ± 4.2	0.023
	Post-I	21.8 ± 3.7	21.6 ± 4.0	21.7 ± 3.9	0.023
Trail-Making test Part B (ms)	Pre-I	59.3 ± 11.0	59.1 ± 14.4	59.2 ± 13.3	0.016
	Post-I	58.1 ± 11.7	55.8 ± 13.1	56.6 ± 12.6	0.185
Visual Digit Span test (points)	Pre-I	6.0 ± 0.7	6.0 ± 0.8	6.0 ± 0.8	0.000
	Post-I	6.3 ± 0.8	6.4 ± 0.8	6.3 ± 0.8	0.125
Stroop test (number of errors)	Pre-I	0.6 ± 0.8	0.8 ± 0.8	0.7 ± 0.8	0.025
	Post-I	0.7 ± 0.5	0.7 ± 0.7	0.7 ± 0.6	0.000
Stroop test (reaction time, ms)	Pre-I	1433.8 ± 307.4	1596.7 ± 311.6	1545.0 ± 317.1	0.526
	Post-I	1310.9 ± 275.5	1464.8 ± 309.6	1415.9 ± 305.6	0.525
Psychological well-being (scores)	Pre-I	66.8 ± 14.2	56.2 ± 14.9 *	59.6 ± 15.4	0.728
	Post-I	67.0 ± 12.4	57.4 ± 13.8 *	60.4 ± 14.0	0.731

Note: *—significantly different from boys (p < 0.05) presented in bold; Pre-I—Pre-intervention; Post-I—Post-intervention; Cohen’s D calculated among boys and girls groups; Cohen’s D 0.20–0.49 small effect, 0.5–0.79 medium effect, and 0.8 and greater–large effect.

presents the pre- and post-intervention results in cognitive testing and psychological well-being among study participants, categorized by gender (boys: n = 20, girls: n = 43, total: n = 63). The table includes measures such as the Trail-Making test (Part A and B, in milliseconds), the Visual Digit Span test, and the Stroop test (both in terms of errors and reaction time). Additionally, psychological well-being scores were recorded. The results indicate minor improvements in cognitive performance post-intervention, particularly in Stroop test reaction time, while the number of errors remained stable (p > 0.05). Cohen’s D values suggest small to moderate effect sizes for cognitive measures in comparing data among boys and girls. Psychological well-being scores were significantly different between boys and girls pre-intervention (66.8 ± 14.2 vs. 56.2 ± 14.9, p < 0.05), with boys reporting higher scores. However, both groups exhibited an increase in perceived well-being post-intervention (67.8 ± 14.2 scores in boys and 56.2 ± 14.9 scores in girls, p < 0.05.

The pre- and post-intervention results in cognitive testing and psychological well-being were analysed among the study participants in different intervention groups as well (

Table 3. Pre- and post-intervention results in cognitive testing and psychological well-being of study participants in different intervention groups (presented as mean ± SD).

Variables		FT Group (n = 31)	FT + Just Dance (n = 32)	Total (n = 63)
Trail-Making test Part A (ms)	Pre-I	23.2 ± 4.6	21.3 ± 3.6 *	22.2 ± 4.2
	Post-I	22.8 ± 3.8	20.5 ± 3.7	21.7 ± 3.9
	Cohen D	0.095	0.219	0.123
Trail-Making test Part B (ms)	Pre-I	57.9 ± 13.2	60.4 ± 13.6	59.2 ± 13.3
	Post-I	57.3 ± 13.6	55.9 ± 11.7	56.6 ± 12.6
	Cohen D	0.044	0.355	0.200
Visual Digit Span test (points)	Pre-I	5.9 ± 0.7	6.2 ± 0.8	6.0 ± 0.8
	Post-I	6.2 ± 0.7	6.4 ± 0.8	6.3 ± 0.8
	Cohen D	0.428	0.250	0.375
Stroop test (number of errors)	Pre-I	0.5 ± 0.7	0.9 ± 0.8 *	0.7 ± 0.8
	Post-I	0.5 ± 0.6	0.7 ± 0.5	0.7 ± 0.6
	Cohen D	0.000	0.299	0.000
Stroop test (reaction time, ms)	Pre-I	1543.9 ± 375.5	1546.0 ± 254.3	1545.0 ± 317.1
	Post-I	1471.1 ± 351.6	1362.4 ± 247.2	1415.9 ± 305.6
	Cohen d	0.200	0.732	0.414
Psychological well-being (scores)	Pre-I	57.9 ± 12.2	61.1 ± 17.9	59.6 ± 15.4
	Post-I	58.8 ± 11.3	61.9 ± 16.2	60.4 ± 14.0
	Cohen d	0.076	0.047	0.054

Note: FT—functional training group; FT + Just Dance—intervention program functional training and Just Dance; *— significantly different from FT group (p < 0.05) presented in bold; Pre-I—Pre-intervention; Post-I—Post-intervention. Cohen’s D calculated among boys and girls groups; Cohen’s d 0.20–0.49 small effect, 0.5–0.79 medium effect, and 0.8 and greater–large effect.

). Pre-intervention values indicate significant differences between groups, particularly the FT + Just Dance group showed significantly better baseline results in the Trail-Making test Part A, but were worse in Stroop test number of errors (p < 0.05). Cohen’s D values revealed small to medium effect sizes in FT + Just Dance group for all cognitive measurements (d = 0.22–0.73), suggesting notable improvements post-intervention. In the FT group, small improvements were also achieved, but only in Stroop test reaction time (d = 0.20) and the Visual Digit Span test (0.43). These findings suggest that functional training combined with dance had a stronger effect on cognitive performance, particularly in reaction time and executive function, compared to functional training alone. Psychological well-being scores showed minimal change post-intervention, with very small effect sizes (Cohen’s d < 0.1).

The logistic regression analysis was performed to evaluate the impact of selected variables on psychological well-being of adolescents (

Table 4. Logistic regression analysis results for the impact on psychological well-being (n = 63).

Predictor	Coefficient	Standard Error	z-Value	p-Value	Confidence Interval Lower	Confidence Interval Upper
Age	−0.095	0.322	−0.294	0.769	−0.726	0.536
Gender	−0.013	0.586	−0.022	0.982	−1.161	1.135
BMI	−0.222	0.110	−2.016	0.044	−0.438	−0.006
Intervention type	−0.381	0.543	−0.701	0.483	−1.444	0.683

). The predictors included in the model were age, gender, BMI, and intervention type. The table provides coefficients, standard errors, z-values, p-values, and 95% confidence intervals for each predictor. Only BMI showed a statistically significant negative association with psychological well-being, with a coefficient of −0.222 (SE = 0.110), a z-value of −2.016, and a p-value of 0.044. The 95% confidence interval ranged from −0.438 to −0.006, indicating that higher BMI was associated with lower psychological well-being. Age, gender, and the intervention type did not significantly predict the psychological well-being of the study participants (p > 0.05).

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to determine the change in cognitive abilities and psychological well-being in adolescents by extra-curricular training with a videogame. To our best knowledges this study was the first attempt to explore video exergaming (including dance activities) effects on adolescent’s cognitive functions and mental well-being in Lithuania. We hypothesized that training for adolescents supplemented by videogames will improve perceived psychological well-being as well as improve concentration of attention, short-term and working memory, and reaction time. Our study showed that supplementing regular workouts with dance game classes during a month makes it possible to improve certain cognitive functions, as was observed in other similar studies such as those conducted by Flynn et al. (2014), which states that playing active videogames requires memory, problem solving, and attention skills. Research has provided compelling evidence on how various forms of physical activity can enhance cognitive functions in children and adolescents’ general cognitive benefits (Esteban-Cornejo et al., 2015), specific cognitive enhancements like executive functions (Mao et al., 2024), attention, and memory (L. Cui et al., 2024). A systematic review and meta-analysis explored the effect of dance on cognitive function in older adults and the results indicated that dance probably improves cognitive function and executive function, though there was little difference in complex attention and small effect on learning and memory (Hewston et al., 2021). Bediou et al. (2018) in his research highlights the potential of action videogames as tools for improving specific cognitive skills, while also addressing limitations in current evidence.

Aerobic exercises like running and swimming have shown positive effects on children’s cognition and academic achievement (Meijer et al., 2022). Another study highlighted the benefits of aerobic exercise on overweight children’s cognitive functions, particularly executive function (Shao et al., 2022). Further, aerobic fitness in children is linked to benefits in brain structure, function, cognition, and school achievement (Chaddock-Heyman et al., 2014). Comprehensive coordination training, involving extracurricular exercises, positively impacts children’s cognitive function. This was demonstrated in a study with children aged 7–9 years old (Liu et al., 2019). Endurance, strength, and coordination training are known to have different effects on cognitive abilities, with activities that demand more cognition being more favorable (Drozdowska et al., 2022). Regular exercise patterns, including strength training, relate to better academic performance, cognitive function, brain structure, and brain activity in adolescents (Herting & Chu, 2017). Yoga has been effective for school-aged children with ADHD, improving attention, impulsiveness, and hyperactivity. It has also shown benefits in attentional control and heart rate variability in preschoolers (Cohen et al., 2018) and enhances mental health in school-aged children by reducing stress (Wang et al., 2023).

In this study, we chose the Stroop test for cognitive function assessment and the results did not show any positive improvement of focused attention or interference in the FT group, but the speed and reaction of information processing improved significantly. While reaction time improved in both study groups compared to pre-intervention measurements, the study group that had “Just Dance” classes achieved a greater significant change. Since all the subjects were visitors to intervention sessions in the sport club, from the beginning to the end of the study, they were naturally able to improve certain cognitive functions, which is what the results of this study show. However, those who had additional dance game training improved their reaction time significantly from the FT group. This may be explained by the fact that when playing the game “Just Dance” you need to quickly respond to the movements displayed, it is necessary to focus and adapt to the rapidly changing environment of the game. During the game, a lot of information is presented at once and it changes rapidly, so in order to be able to successfully play it, children need to concentrate, be able to quickly understand and evaluate changes, which leads to an improvement in the speed of processing of information. Also, if you miss or do one movement incorrectly, you do not receive a virtual award, so the desire not to make a mistake in playing such games makes children more focused and responsive to situations. All this promotes an increase in speed of reaction. In similar research performed in the Netherlands (van den Berg et al., 2019), a daily 10 min exercise break for a period of 9 weeks in the classroom was implemented. The results showed that intervention had no effect on the cognitive performance, including inhibitory performance measured by the Stroop test, and aerobic fitness of 9–12-year-old children.

Another improvement in this study was noted as well—in working memory, which defines the information you just received is in use at the current time. One of the tests for the development of the trail revealed a positive significant change in the FT + Just Dance group of subjects, while the indicators of the FT group did not change significantly. In the game “Just Dance”, various dance movements are shown and must be accurately reproduced. When repeating, the child must simultaneously observe the environment, process information, and control their body. Cognitive and motor skills are simultaneously involved. In this way, working memory is trained. This is consistent with the results of the studies of Oppici et al. (2020) and Ludyga et al. (2016). Therefore, the processing of visible movements, memorizing, and trying to replicate it develops this type of memory. However, when it comes to short-term memory, somewhat different results can be observed. The test of memorable numbers showed that both groups improved their short-term memory indicators throughout the study period.

Comparing the changes between the FT + Just Dance group of subjects with the change in the FT group, no significant difference was found. This suggests that teens’ active athletic occupancy or other factors can also improve short-term memory indicators and the videogame “Just Dance” did not have a significant effect on it when compared with those who did not play that game. The goal of the game is not to learn the dances, recall, or repeat them after a longer period of time. The game is designed to quickly replicate the movements you see on the screen and move on to the next movements (Soares et al., 2021; van den Berg et al., 2019). Dance movements are not repeated with the purpose of memorizing them or improving dance skills. Therefore, during this game, the development of short-term memory is not stimulated. And if it is encouraged, it is similar to the various environmental factors that have also changed the indicators of short-term memory in the FT group. Therefore, a game such as “Just Dance” is not designed to significantly stimulate the development of short-term memory (Soares et al., 2021; van den Berg et al., 2019; Rüth & Kaspar, 2020). These findings suggest that the dance-based exergame may have played a central role in enhancing cognitive outcomes, particularly in reaction time and working memory. Participants in the FT + Just Dance group faced frequent, rapid changes in on-screen prompts, demanding swift recognition of dance steps and precise coordination of their movements (Flynn et al., 2014; Oppici et al., 2020). Such real-time, multi-sensory engagement fosters attentional focus, motor planning, and decision-making under time constraints—capabilities that likely drove the additional gains observed in our study (Bediou et al., 2018). In contrast, the functional training sessions, while still beneficial for physical fitness, lacked these dynamic visual–cognitive challenges. Consequently, the results underscore the potential of dance-oriented exergames to confer unique advantages by merging physical exercise with higher-order cognitive stimulation.

This study revealed that the addition of joint physical training with sessions of the dance game Just Dance did not bring a significant change in the psychological state of adolescents in total group, but there were notable differences in gender groups. Schwender et al. (2018), based on a systematic review of 24 studies, including 11 focused on children and adolescents, concluded that dance interventions can positively affect various aspects of self-perception. Andrade et al. (2019b) revealed an increase in children’s satisfaction with training-supplemented computer games. Satisfaction with a workout will not necessarily correspond to the general psychological state of children. The psychological state depends on many different factors. However, we did not study the emotional state during the training itself or the emotions after training, with videogames, which, perhaps, would explain this difference in results. Since the study participants did not assess the psychological state immediately after training, but only after the entire period of intervention, perhaps good emotions have faded and the psychological state was assessed as normal, regardless of the good emotions experienced during the training. Research on videogames shows mixed outcomes. Playing target-oriented action and simulation games can improve attention span, working memory performance, and motor skills, essential for navigating complex environments (Hastings et al., 2012; Mishra et al., 2012).

Some videogames, when combined with fitness coaching and a step tracker, have helped overweight children lose weight, lower blood pressure, and cholesterol, and increase physical activity, thus improving physical and mental well-being (Valeriani et al., 2021; González-González et al., 2021). However, heavy use of videogames can have negative impacts, such as poor social development and association with wrong values, which may decrease psychosocial characteristics like empathy and moral engagement (Xu et al., 2023; Kaya et al., 2024). Studies also indicate that playing videogames for about three hours a day could be linked to enhanced brain activity in attention and memory regions (Chaarani et al., 2022). The effects of videogames on personality and behavior are complex and depend on various factors, including the choice of games. In the period of adolescence, young teens experience a lot of stress and tension at school or related to the formation of self-identity which may contribute to the increased irritability and poor mood (Kviklienė et al., 2017; Romeo, 2013; de Moor et al., 2019). Therefore, the dance game a few days a week did not compensate for the level of stress experienced. The average psychological state of the participants in our study at the beginning of the intervention was 59 points, and at the end of the experiment 60 points. During the study, adolescents assessed their psychological state in the context of all the stressful environments, which showed that it was not at its peak either before or after the study. One important factor to consider is the relatively short duration (4 weeks) and frequency (three sessions per week) of our intervention. While such a timeframe was sufficient to detect improvements in reaction time, previous exergame studies with longer interventions—ranging from 8 to 10 weeks—have often reported more pronounced effects on both cognitive measures and mental health (Ludyga et al., 2016; Joronen et al., 2017). A longer or more frequent intervention may be required to achieve consistent changes in psychological well-being, given the multifaceted nature of mental health and its sensitivity to broader environmental factors (Andrade et al., 2019b; Murphya et al., 2022). Consequently, although our short-term program yielded specific benefits, it may not suffice for robust or sustained improvements in subjective well-being. Future research could investigate whether extending the intervention period or increasing session frequency amplifies these positive effects. Thus, our hypothesis has partially been confirmed: training supplemented by videogames for teenagers improved reaction time and working memory, but the fact that such games will significantly improve short-term memory or subjectively perceived psychological well-being has not proven to be true.

Study limitations and future perspectives. We may suggest that acute intervention was not a sufficient period to improve psychological well-being and the many cognitive abilities of adolescents. One of the shortcomings of our study may be the duration of the videogame-based program, i.e., 30 min exercise sessions 3 times a week for 1 month may not be enough to achieve results with a more pronounced dose–response effect, especially when studying the emotional and psychological state of adolescents which depends on numerous factors. Another factor to consider is the potential influence of those who delivered the intervention. Although we standardised each session’s structure, content, and materials—ensuring that all teachers followed the same training scripts, used the same music tracks, and led identical warm-ups—we cannot exclude the possibility of variation arising from individual teaching styles or differing levels of instructor expertise. Rotating teachers or adopting cross-monitoring strategies might further reduce these effects in future implementations (Schwender et al., 2018). While we regard this as a limitation, close collaboration among instructors in this study helped keep session delivery consistent and minimized possible biases linked to who ran the program. Our study focused on adolescents of a narrow age range (13–15 years). In modern society, various technological tools are being included in the education of schoolchildren at an early stage, it would be useful to look at the impact that dance exergames may have on younger children as well, and how the effect varies from one age group to another. Also, this study included physically active children only, so it would be worthwhile attracting less physically active participants and comparing how such dance exergames would affect their psychological well-being and cognitive skills. Nevertheless, such interventions as ours could further contribute to the promotion of healthy lifestyle of those who are insufficiently physically active, since it has been shown that various interactive games are popular among and more appealing for young people, who are more interested in computer games involving physical activity than in conventional physical activities (Rudella & Butz, 2018; Ningning & Wenguang, 2023). Investigating other potential influencing factors, such as socio-economic status, educational background, or specific types of videogame-based activities, could provide more insights. Moreover, we did not assess pubertal development (e.g., Tanner stages), which may have introduced variability in certain physical and psychological outcomes, suggesting a need for future research to account for this factor. Conducting longitudinal studies could help in understanding the long-term effects of such interventions on psychological well-being and cognitive skills. Additionally, a larger and more diverse sample might provide more generalizable results and allow for more nuanced subgroup analyses.

5. Conclusions

We may conclude that extracurricular exercising supplemented with the videogame “Just Dance” for teenagers improved their reaction time and working memory, but not the perceived psychological well-being, visual–executive abilities, and short-term visual memory. The results suggest that the intervention might be more effective in improving certain cognitive skills (like reaction time and complex task performance) compared to others. The analysis did not show a statistically significant improvement in psychological well-being as a result of the intervention in total sample, although differences were identified in gender groups, suggesting that the intervention’s effect might be more pronounced on cognitive skills rather than on psychological well-being. Further research specifically targeting the adolescent age group and the combination of regular workouts with dance game classes would be necessary to draw definitive conclusions about the impact on cognitive functions in this population.