Evaluating the Impact of a Laboratory-Based Program on Children’s Coordination Skills Using the MABC-2

Abstract

The aim of this study was to verify the effects of laboratory learning on children’s fundamental movement skills (FMS) through an intervention designed and implemented by specially trained generalist teachers. A total of 114 children attending 1st and 2nd grade of primary school (6.7 ± 0.8 yo) and 28 children attending preschool (4.1 ± 0.9 yo) in Naples (Italy) participated in the study. To assess FMS, the Movement ABC-2 (MABC-2) was administered. A two-way ANOVA for repeated measures was used to compare data. The laboratory was effective in improving coordination in primary school children, with a significant reduction in medium/severe movement difficulties from 23.7% to 12.4%. The results showed significant changes in the execution time of several MABC-2 tests, indicating an improvement in FMS, particularly hand-eye coordination and dynamic balance. However, the intervention was less effective in preschool children, with a limited improvement of 2.9%, highlighting that the intervention only had an impact on some specific skills. Targeted interventions can be effective in improving FMS, providing a basis for educational programs that respond to movement needs of students.

1. Introduction

In Italy, the education system is structured into several levels: preschool for children aged 3 to 5, primary school for ages 6 to 11, lower secondary school for ages 11 to 14 and upper secondary school for ages 14 to 19. Physical education is mandatory from primary school onwards, but is often taught by generalist teachers who are responsible for all subjects in the early years of schooling. Preschool and primary school represent the formal learning environment responsible for ensuring high-quality physical and movement education, given the central role of sensorimotor development in the child’s growth. Effective educational design requires a methodologically sound assessment of the students’ movement learning needs (Nagy et al., 2023). Identifying these needs involves observing spontaneous activities and structured educational interactions, which help evaluate motor skill development and potential psychomotor difficulties (Giardullo et al., 2024) such as physical inhibition and instability. Consequently, preschool and primary school teachers play a crucial role in designing and implementing effective movement-based educational experiences, yet many lack the necessary competencies to conduct psychomotor evaluations due to insufficient training in physical activity teaching methods (D’Elia, 2020; Rojo-Ramos et al., 2022). A significant number of generalist teachers report only moderate confidence in teaching physical education (Morgan & Bourke, 2008; Nioda & Tagare, 2024), often attributing their insecurity to the poor-quality physical education they received during their own schooling. Research highlights that the quality of an individual’s past school physical education experience directly influences their confidence in teaching the subject. Teachers’ training experiences play a crucial role in developing professional competences required for effective motor skills instructions (Raiola, 2013, 2017). However, several studies (D’Elia, 2023; D’Elia & D’Isanto, 2021; D’Isanto & D’Elia, 2021) indicate that generalist teachers and primary education science students, who represent the future teaching workforce, often feel inadequately prepared to teach physical education. Many of them are physically inactive and have never observed physical education lessons, further limiting preschool children’s opportunities for meaningful movement experience. This is critical and particularly concerning, as preschool children tend to engage in higher levels of physical activity when teachers themselves are more physically active (Cheung, 2020).

The lack of specific competences among generalist teachers affects their ability to provide adequate physical education and conduct effective movement assessments, both of which are crucial for monitoring and promoting children’s healthy development (Salters & Scharoun Benson, 2022). Additionally, many educators perceive university courses as ineffective in equipping them with the necessary skills for teaching physical education (Morgan & Hansen, 2008). These perceptions directly affect how physical education is taught in primary and preschool settings, negatively influencing the quality of education offered in this area (Raiola et al., 2022). To prevent perpetuating poor-quality physical education or avoiding teaching it, it is crucial to intervene in both initial teacher education and in-service training. Such interventions should aim to foster a positive and competent approach to physical education (D’Elia, 2019). Teacher training must counteract dissatisfaction stemming from previous negative or non-educational experiences by providing meaningful learning opportunities through active, workshop-based methodologies. These approaches foster relevant and targeted professional development in planning, teaching, and movement assessment. Given the increasing prevalence of movement difficulties among children (Schlag et al., 2021) a deeper understanding of these issues is necessary, relying on specific assessment methods and scientifically validated approaches (Aliberti et al., 2023).

Among the available movement assessment tools, the Movement Assessment Battery for Children—Second Edition (MABC-2; Henderson et al., 2007) has proven to be a reliable tool for detecting coordination development problems (Schulz et al., 2011), such as clumsiness or in motor control difficulties, often found in preschool and school-age children. The MABC-2 provides a structured assessment of fine motor and gross motor skills, offering teachers clear indications to adapt educational activities to individual student needs (Raiola et al., 2022). Implementing tools like the MABC-2 is essential for the early identification and intervention of coordination development difficulties, thus improving children’s motor development path. Recent exploratory research (D’Isanto et al., 2024) conducted on a small sample of children from the province of Naples (Italy), compared to the Italian validation study of the MABC-2 (Zoia et al., 2019), revealed significantly scores in five out of eight tests, particularly among five-year-olds. Given these findings, it is necessary to expand the research within the Campania region (Southern Italy) through a pilot study involving teachers in both assessment and teaching phases.

The present study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a laboratory-based intervention program to improve motor coordination skills in children through an approach that integrates teacher training in the administration of the MABC-2 and the implementation of targeted physical activities. The program was implemented by previously trained generalist teachers with the support of a sports science expert to ensure proper implementation of the educational protocol. Unlike other studies that focus solely on teacher training, this research analyzes the effects of the program on children’s motor coordination with an emphasis on improving motor skills through active learning. We hypothesize that children who participate in this laboratory-based program will show significant improvements in coordination skills compared to those who do not, highlighting the effectiveness of teacher training in enhancing movement education.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Participants

The present work reports the outcomes of a training and research experience carried out using the laboratory methodology and focusing the training on the methodological principles of physical activity for children and the movement assessment tools that can be used in the school context. Following the training, teachers implemented in their class/section a laboratory program to promote the development of fine motor and gross motor skills, with the support of an expert graduate in exercise and sport sciences, designing, teaching, and assessing children’s movement using the MABC-2 battery.

A non-probabilistic convenience sampling method was adopted to recruit 114 children attending the first and second grades of primary school (age, 6.7 ± 0.8 years old; 54.3%F; 45.7%, M) and 28 children attending preschool (age, 4.1 ± 0.9 years old; 44.4% F; 55.6% M) of a comprehensive institute in Naples and 20 generalist teachers of both primary and preschool. Participants were divided into two groups: the experimental group (EXP) and the control group (CON). The EXP group consisted of 57 primary school children and 14 preschool children, who participated in a laboratory program aimed at enhancing fine and gross motor skills. The CON group consisted of 57 primary school children and 14 preschool children who did not receive any specific intervention. Each child was assigned an alphanumeric code (i.e., B1, B2, B3) to compare pre-test and post-test assessments. Written informed consent was collected from the children’s parents or legal guardians, and child assent was obtained before participation, in accordance with ethical guidelines for research with minors. The study was conducted following the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.2. Instruments

To ensure the accuracy of data, the MABC-2 was administered according to the standardized procedures outlined in the manual. MABC-2 battery consists of 8 activities classified into 3 categories of physical skill: three tests on Manual Dexterity (MD1, MD2, MD3); two tests on ball skills, Catching and Throwing (CT1 and CT2); and three tests on Balance Skills (BS1, BS2, BS3). Tests for age band 1 (3–6 years old) and age band 2 (7–11 years old) (Henderson et al., 2007) were used and presented in

Table 1. MABC-2 tasks for age bands 1 and 2.

Task Band 1	Description of the Task	Recorded Parameter
MD1. Coin insertion	To pick up 6 or 12 plastic coins from the table and insert them through a narrow slot into a plastic box.	Time taken
MD2. Bead threading	To thread 6 or 12 plastic beads onto a string	Time taken
MD3. Tracing path	To trace the route between two lines without exceeding the boundaries	no. of errors (exceeds, interruptions)
CT1. Catching a beanbag	To catch a beanbag	no. of successful attempts out of 10 trials
CT2. Tossing a beanbag	To throw the beanbag on the mat	no. of successful attempts out of 10 trials
BS1. Single-leg balance	To maintain balance on one leg for 30 s	no. of seconds
BS2. Toe-walking	To walk along a line without letting the raised heel touch the ground	no. of successful steps out of 15
BS3. Jumping on mats	To jump from a standing position with legs together from mat to mat	no. of successful jumps out of 5
Task Band 2	Description of the Task	Recorded Parameter
MD1. Placing pegs	To insert small plastic pegs as quickly as possible into a board.	Time taken
MD2. Threading a string	To pull a string through the holes of a plastic board	Time taken
MD3. Tracing path	To trace the route between two lines without exceeding the boundaries	no. of errors (exceeds, interruptions)
CT1. Catching	To throw a tennis ball against the wall and catch it with both hands	no. of successful attempts out of 10 trials for each hand
CT2. Throwing	To throw the beanbag into the red circle on a mat	no. of successful attempts out of 10 trials
BS1. Single-board balance	To balance on one foot on the balance board for 30 s	no. of seconds
BS2. Heel to toe	To walk along the line while the heel of one foot touches the toes of the other foot	no. of successful steps out of 15
BS3. Hopscotch	To jump forward on one leg from mat to mat starting from a standing position	no. of successful jumps out of 5 for each leg

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The raw scores for each activity were converted into standard scores following the reference manual. Outcomes were classified using a traffic light system, with three zones: red (total score ≤ 56th percentile), indicating significant movement difficulties; yellow (57th–67th percentile), indicating moderate movement difficulties; and green (≥68th percentile), indicating no movement difficulties.

2.3. Study Phases and Procedures

The study was conducted over 5 months during the 2023/2024 school year and was divided into three phases: teacher training, educational research, and final assessment. Twenty preschool and primary school teachers participated in the first phase, which involved a 4-week laboratory-based training program focused on developing fine and gross movement prerequisites and movement assessment using MABC-2. Teachers received a certificate of participation at the end of the course, which is valid as a training course. The training, conducted in the school gym, focused on the theoretical foundations of motor development and movement assessment, practical application of motor learning strategies for children, and simulation of MABC-2 administration. The intervention lasted four weeks, with two sessions per week, each lasting 45 min. The structured sessions progressively increased in complexity and were designed to develop fine and gross motor skills, including manual dexterity, hand-eye coordination, and balance. Activities were tailored to ensure age-appropriate skill development:

Week 1: Focus on basic manual dexterity exercises

Week 2–3: Introduction of dynamic coordination activities

Week 4: Consolidation and refinement of skills through integrated exercises.

Each session began with a general coordination warm-up, followed by skill-specific activities, ensuring a gradual and systematic approach to motor learning. At the end of the intervention, teachers re-administered the MABC-2 battery to both groups, with support from the expert in exercise and sports sciences. Pre- and post-intervention data were collected and analyzed to assess the effectiveness of the program. This methodological approach allowed for a controlled evaluation of the intervention’s impact, ensuring that any observed improvements in motor coordination were attributable to the structured movement-based program, rather than external factors. A detailed description is shown in

Table 2. EXP protocol activities.

Physical Skill Category	Games	Skills Developed
Manual dexterity	The hand and the rubber bands: Observe the stimulus figure and, after understanding whether it is the right or left hand, reproduce the sequence of rubber bands. Manipulation exercises: Play with beads and strings, modeling clay, construction blocks, puzzles, and buttoning activities. Colored fishing: Use various tweezers to pick up different materials placed in a box and position them correctly. Clothespin tree: Attach clothespins (of different shapes and sizes) to the wooden structure, matching the corresponding hooks.	Visuo-motor coordination Imitation skills Hand-eye coordination Differentiation Precision
Catching and throwing	Tracing different types of paths Ball throw aiming at rings placed at different distances Throwing and catching the ball between peers Train game: Passing the ball under the legs (variations: lateral pass/over the head/while seated) Motor skills course: Building a course with cones	Throwing experience Force control Coordination Precision Force control
Balance skills	Musical Flamingo: Balance on one foot, then the other, showing various positions using arms and hoops while music plays. Hopscotch: Follow the path traced on the ground. Tightrope Walker: Walk on lines of tape on the ground, overcoming obstacles like cones or interrupted lines. Waiter’s Game: Balance trays with objects (e.g., a tennis ball) and transport them from point A to point B. Bouncing Balloon: Inflate a balloon, throw it in the air, and keep it from falling. Count how many bounces they can make.	- Imitation skills - Static balance - Jumping - Counting skills - Dynamic balance

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2.4. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data in terms of mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage. A two-way ANOVA for repeated measures was conducted to compare the effects of time (pre-test vs. post-test) and group (EXP and CON) on movement performance as measured by the MABC-2. To assess the magnitude of the effect, partial eta squared (η²) was calculated as the measure of effect size. This statistic indicates the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variables. Data were processed using SPSS 27.0 software.

3. Results

From the initial assessment (PRE-TEST), 19.6% of primary school children exhibited some motor difficulties, placing them in the yellow zone; 4.1% were in the red zone; and 76.3% were in the green zone. Following the implementation of the motor protocol in class (POST-TEST), the percentage of children with some motor difficulties (yellow zone: moderate movement difficulties) decreased to 11.3%, while the percentage of children with good performance (green zone: no movement difficulties) increased to 88.7%. No child scored high enough to fall into the red zone (Figure 1).

The ANOVA results showed significant changes over time in the measures of MD1, F(1,79) = 14.67, p < 0.001; MD2, F(1,79) = 23.84, p < 0.001; CT1, F(1,78) = 9.10, p = 0.003; CT2, F(1,78) = 31.38, p < 0.001; BS, F(1,79) = 8.69, p = 0.004, and BS3, F(1,79) = 6.105, p = 0.016. No significant differences were found for the MD3 and BS22 tests. The effect size provided insight into the magnitude of these differences. Specifically, MD1 (d = 0.26) and MD2 (d = 0.76) indicated small to moderate effects, suggesting that changes in these measures, while significant, varied in practical importance. CT1 (d = −0.40) showed a small negative effect, whereas CT2 (d = −1.39) revealed a large negative effect, indicating a strong pre–post difference. BS1 (d = 1.54) demonstrated a very large effect, highlighting substantial changes over time, while BS3 (d = −0.01) suggested a negligible effect. MD3 (d = 0.00) and BS2 (d = −0.19) confirmed the lack of significant differences found in the ANOVA. A detailed description is shown in

Table 3. Descriptive and standard data comparison between CON and EXP groups in primary school children.

	CON		EXP		p	Effect Size
	Pre	Post	Pre	Post
MD1	25.82	25.17	27.99	24.92	0.001	0.26
MD2	52.74	47.27	48.68	37.74	0.001	0.76
MD3	2.5	2.5	2.5	2.4	0.552	0.00
CT1	6.73	7.21	6.37	7.21	0.003	−0.40
CT2	4.89	6.98	3.75	5.29	0.001	−1.39
BS1	25.43	18.81	24.25	24.64	0.004	1.54
BS2	13.03	13.43	14.04	13.16	0.543	−0.19
BS3	4.35	4.36	3.79	4.45	0.016	−0.01

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Regarding preschool children, the initial assessment showed that 8.8% of the children exhibited some motor difficulties, placing them in the yellow zone; 2.9% were in the red zone, indicating significant motor difficulties; and 88% were in the green zone. Following the motor skills laboratory, the number of children with some motor difficulties (yellow zone) decreased to 5.9%, while the proportion of children with significant motor difficulties remained unchanged at 2.9%. Consequently, children who improved their performance moved from the yellow to the green zone, with 91% of the participants falling into the green zone by the end of the study (Figure 2).

The results showed a significant main effect of time between the EXP and CON groups for MD1, F(1,25) = 22.480, p < 0.001, and BS2, F(1,25) = 4.956, p = 0.035. The results were not significant for the tests MD2, MD3, CT1, CT2, and BS3. MD1 (d = 1.00) had a large effect, suggesting a substantial reduction over time. BS2 (d = 0.00) confirmed that, despite statistical significance, the actual change was negligible. MD2 (d = −0.04) and BS3 (d = −0.12) indicated very small effects, reinforcing the lack of significant differences found in ANOVA. MD3 (d = 0.33) and CT2 (d = 0.36) showed small effects, while CT1 (d = −0.39) is also small but negative, suggesting a slight pre–post difference in the opposite direction. BS1 (d = 0.57) falls into the moderate effect range, implying a notable change in this measure over time. A detailed description is shown in

Table 4. Descriptive statistics and standard data comparison between CON and EXP groups in preschool children.

	CON		EXP		p	Effect Size
	Pre	Post	Pre	Post
MD1	18.42	15.32	26.15	14.88	0.001	1.00
MD2	63.88	64.07	65.07	59.07	0.086	−0.04
MD3	4.4	4.3	4.4	4.2	0.554	0.33
CT1	5.28	5.71	4.84	4.84	0.533	−0.39
CT2	6.64	6.21	4.84	4.84	0.533	0.36
BS1	10.46	8.46	3.76	11.07	0.084	0.57
BS2	15	15	14	15	0.035	0.00
BS3	4.57	4.64	4.61	4.61	0.345	−0.12

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4. Discussion

Following the implementation of the laboratory in the EXP group, coordination levels improved in primary school children, as evidenced by a reduction in moderate/severe movement difficulties identified in the PRE-TEST from 23.7% of participants to 12.4% in the POST-TEST. However, the same improvements were not observed in preschool children, where the percentage of children with significant movement difficulties did not change, and only a small proportion of children with moderate difficulties showed improvement. This difference in the margin of improvement between preschool and primary school children reflects the developmental nature of the tasks proposed in the MABC-2, as noted in other studies (Jaikaew & Satiansukpong, 2021; Ke et al., 2020; Cools et al., 2010). Quantitatively, the ANOVA results suggested significant changes in the time variable for several MABC-2 measures; specifically, the task completion times improved, indicating the effectiveness of the motor laboratory in enhancing fine and gross motor skills in primary school children. Significant changes emerged in the MD1, MD2, CT1, CT2, BS1, and BS3 tests, while no significant differences were detected for the MD3 and BS2 tests. The significant improvements observed in the EXP group align with prior studies highlight the effectiveness of targeted motor interventions in enhancing coordination skills (Henderson et al., 2007; Schulz et al., 2011). These findings support the premise that structured interventions focusing on manual dexterity, balance, and hand-eye coordination can significantly improve fundamental movement skills in young children. Regarding the MD1 test, there was a significant decrease in post-test scores in both groups, but the lower scores, indicating better performance, were more prevalent in the EXP group, suggesting that the protocol had a more significant impact on these children compared to the CON group. Specifically, the children took less time to insert coins into the piggy bank/pegs into a board, improving their precision and hand-eye coordination. The pre-post results of the MD2 test showed a similar trend, with a significant score reduction in both groups, but the improvement was more marked in the EXP group. Again, the children were faster and more precise, taking less time to thread beads on a string/lace into a ruler’s holes. CT1 and CT2 showed significant post-test score increases in both groups, with more pronounced changes in the EXP group. The increase in CT2 in the EXP group was particularly notable, indicating a significant improvement in the ability to throw and hit the target and catch an object. For the balance tests, BS1 (balancing on one leg up to 30 s) showed a significant score reduction only in the CON group, while the EXP group maintained a stable level. The BS3 test (jumping on five quadrants) showed a significant increase in the EXP group, indicating the experimental protocol’s effectiveness in improving balance. In contrast, MD3 and BS2 did not show significant changes, likely because the initial scores were already high. This phenomenon, known as the “ceiling effect,” suggests that the students were already competent and had reached the learning threshold for these specific tasks. Overall, the results suggest that the intervention implemented in the EXP group positively impacted almost all abilities, while the CON group still showed positive changes.

Regarding preschool, the ANOVA results highlighted a significant time effect between the EXP and CON groups for the MD1 and BS2 variables, while no significant differences were found for all other measures. These results suggest that the intervention impacted specific skills and emotional dimensions but not all. For MD1, the EXP group showed a significant reduction in post-test scores, with a marked decline compared to pre-test scores. This result indicated the intervention’s effectiveness in reducing the time taken to insert coins into the piggy bank, improving hand-eye coordination and the speed/precision relationship. The pre–post results of the BS2 test also showed significant changes, with an increase in the EXP group’s scores compared to the CON group. The intervention improved dynamic balance and precision, as the test involved walking on a tape with lifted heels to perform 15 steps. The stability of the CON group’s scores reinforces the idea that the observed change in the EXP group is attributable to the implemented intervention. On the other hand, no significant changes were found for the other tests, such as MD2, MD3, CT1, CT2, BS1, and BS3. The limited improvements observed in this group may be attributed to the developmental stage of younger children, who may require longer intervention periods or different training methodologies to achieve measurable improvements (Cools et al., 2010; Engel et al., 2018). These results suggest that while some gains were made, future interventions should consider age-specific adaptations to enhance their effectiveness for younger children.

Developing functional movement skills (FMS) is necessary from early childhood (Tompsett et al., 2017; Hardy et al., 2012). FMS can be divided into three groups: object control/manipulation skills (e.g., throwing, catching, dribbling, kicking, striking, and underhand rolling), locomotor skills (e.g., walking, running, jumping, hopping, hopping, leaping, galloping, sliding, and skipping), and balance/stability skills, which are the basic components of the MABC-2. Various reviews and meta-analyses on the effectiveness of FMS interventions in childhood have been synthesized by Koolwijk et al. (2023). Evidence shows that FMS-focused interventions can be effective in the short term if they consist of a combination of deliberate play and deliberate practice with a frequency of three times a week for 30–40 min, with the presence of an expert tutor (Roscoe et al., 2024). The ideal intervention period should last more than six months to produce changes compared to shorter-duration interventions (Engel et al., 2018). Finally, higher-quality interventions included training sessions for teachers by experts (Barnett et al., 2016). Future studies should extend the intervention period and the frequency of sessions, reviewing their content.

The early detection of FMS problems is critical, as it allows for timely interventions that can significantly mitigate the long-term impact of motor difficulties on a child’s life (Gao et al., 2024). Studies highlight that children with this kind of problem often exhibit lower levels of physical activity and fitness, increasing their risk of being overweight or of obesity (Rivilis et al., 2011; Hendrix et al., 2014). This reduced activity stems from motor skill deficits that restrict participation in physical and recreational activities, contributing to social isolation and reduced peer interaction (Tal Saban & Kirby, 2019; Caçola, 2016). Furthermore, the frequent co-occurrence of motor problems with other conditions like language or autism spectrum disorders underscore the need for comprehensive assessments (Archibald & Alloway, 2008; Pieters et al., 2015). Social and emotional challenges associated with FMS problems, such as anxiety, depression, and heightened feelings of loneliness, further amplify the importance of early detection and intervention. Research shows that children with FMS problems report fewer opportunities to engage in group-based physical activities, both structured (e.g., team sports) and informal (e.g., outdoor play), compared to their peers (Missiuna et al., 2008; Draghi et al., 2020). If unaddressed, these challenges can persist into adulthood, adversely affecting adaptive behaviors and mental health outcomes (Harrowell et al., 2017).

The study demonstrated that a motor laboratory program designed based on a careful assessment of children’s skills and difficulties can significantly improve motor abilities in primary school children, particularly in the areas of coordination and balance. Using the MABC-2 as an assessment tool allowed for detailed and specific measurements of children’s motor skills. Considering the information provided, the growing need to design and implement educational projects aimed at supporting and developing motor skills and abilities became clear (Wilson et al., 2020; Wang & Wang, 2024; Huggett & Howells, 2024). These findings highlighted the importance of structured movement-based interventions in early education and reinforced the necessity of training generalist teachers for their efficacy. While this study adopted a two-group design, future research could incorporate a third group (involving untrained teachers) to provide deeper insights into the specific contribution of teacher preparation. Additionally, given the observed differences between preschool and primary school children, future studies should consider longer intervention durations or age-specific adaptations to enhance the impact of motor skill programs in younger children.

5. Conclusions

The findings provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of a laboratory-based motor skills intervention to improve coordination, specifically manual dexterity, hand-eye coordination and balance, among primary school children. It especially emerged how crucial the presence of teachers/experts with degrees in exercise and sports sciences is in promoting movement and physical skills development in children (Esposito et al., 2024; Hassan et al., 2022; Jones et al., 2021). This represents a significant step forward for the educational system. Graduates in exercise and sport sciences in primary schools can help to reverse negative trends in children’s current lifestyles (Gaetano, 2016), as children are becoming increasingly sedentary, with a growing tendency to spend many hours sitting in front of technological devices and engaging in minimal physical activity (Webster et al., 2019). However, the absence of significant differences between groups in some tests suggests the need for further exploration to better understand the dynamics of motor change and further optimize interventions (Kitsao-Wekulo et al., 2013). On the other hand, the intervention had a more limited impact on preschool children, suggesting that developmental differences may influence responsiveness to such programs. The main limitation is the sample size, particularly in the preschool group, which may have affected the statistical power of the results. Future studies should conduct a power analysis to determine an optimal sample size. Despite this limitation, the study provides significant implications for curriculum development and teacher training programs. By incorporating specialized motor skills training into early childhood education, educators can better support children’s physical development, potentially mitigating long-term motor deficiencies. Future research should consider extending the intervention duration, increasing session frequency, and including follow-up assessments to evaluate the long-term retention of motor skills improvements. This study underscores the need for well-designed, evidence-based motor skills programs in early education. By addressing the identified limitations and expanding research efforts, educational institutions can further enhance children’s fundamental movement skills, promoting lifelong physical competence and wellbeing.