Fostering the Four C’s: A Gendered Perspective on Technology Use in STEAM Education

Abstract

The integration of 3D modeling and printing (3DMP) into STEAM education has the potential to foster 21st-century skills, including creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication (the four C’s). This study investigates whether gender influences the use of 3DMP among pre-service mathematics teachers and how this technology supports the creation of meaningful STEAM learning experiences. Over 100 project documentations from Austrian university students were analyzed, evaluating their potential to promote the four C’s and their transdisciplinary connections. Results indicate minimal gender differences, with both male and female participants incorporating technical, artistic, and creative elements into their projects. These findings challenge stereotypes about technology as a male domain and suggest that integrating emerging technologies such as 3DMP into teacher training inherently supports gender-neutral outcomes, promoting inclusivity and equity in STEAM education without requiring explicit gender-focused interventions. The study contributes to ongoing discussions about gender perceptions and technology integration in education, offering insights into fostering inclusive and equitable STEAM teaching practices.

1. Introduction

The integration of emerging technologies, such as 3D printing and modeling (3DMP), in STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, Mathematics) education has the potential to foster 21st-century skills, known as the four C’s: communication, creativity, collaboration, and critical thinking (González-Pérez & Ramírez-Montoya, 2022). While the potential of these tools is widely recognized, their adoption by teachers could be uneven, influenced by societal factors such as gender (Šabić et al., 2021). Our study investigates whether gender impacts the use of 3DMP among pre-service mathematics teachers, focusing on how intensely their project ideas incorporate the four C’s.

The four C’s are seen as important skills for addressing complex challenges of the future (Trilling & Fadel, 2012). STEAM education has the potential to support the development of these skills through transdisciplinary and cohesive learning experiences. However, PISA results show that boys tend to score lower in reading comprehension while girls underperform in mathematics, suggesting that their skills are influenced by different factors (OECD, 2013). Career choices can be influenced by numerous factors, including gender, and have an impact on the future possibilities of students (Sadler et al., 2012; Merayo & Ayuso, 2022). One potential influence on children’s skill development is the way teachers of different genders approach technology in the classroom (Zhou & Xu, 2007).

To address this question, we analyzed over 100 project documentations from a 3DMP university course for pre-service mathematics teachers, evaluating 3D models and prints of the projects developed during the course based on their potential to foster the four C’s. Our goal was to examine gender participation and engagement in a technology-focused course and to explore whether such technology is suitable for supporting STEAM teaching that equally fosters the four C’s, regardless of the teacher’s gender. By comparing the approaches of male and female participants, the study helps understand whether gendered dynamics of technology use in education have an effect and if current generations of teachers differ in approaches regarding the use of complex technologies.

Using technology in STEAM education can offer many advantages, such as connecting to students’ lives outside of schools, to foster the four C’s of child development (Trilling & Fadel, 2012). However, teachers sometimes hesitate to use emerging technologies such as 3DMP, which can be used in an integrated STEAM teaching approach. Teachers of non-STEM subjects in many countries, including Austria, are predominantly female, while many teachers of STEM subjects are male, and there is an ongoing discussion about the relevance of the teacher’s gender influencing the performance of children discussing the impact of sociocultural factors (Weaver-Hightower, 2003). Currently, girls have better communication skills in their everyday lives than boys, while more boys than girls are choosing STEM careers, leading to gender pay gaps (Munir & Winter-Ebmer, 2018).

Stereotypes can hinder female educators in their use of technology or can influence their perception of technology (Mercader & Duran-Bellonch, 2021), which raises the question of whether male and female teachers use technology in a similar way. Technologies should offer learning opportunities for all students equally, and the rising number of female STEAM teachers should have an equal or positive impact on how technology is used in schools. To explore whether there are differences in participation rates and project outcomes between genders in a university course about 3DMP and how this technology is used by STEAM subject teachers to create STEAM activity ideas, we analyzed project documentations of technology-related mathematics projects created during introductory 3DMP courses. We wanted to learn about the ways in which male and female teachers use 3DMP and to which extent they incorporate interdisciplinarity in creating STEAM lessons. The documentations of 3DMP projects developed by female pre-service mathematics teachers and their male colleagues were examined for coverage of STEAM subjects. We looked at over 100 descriptions of 3DMP projects, searching for similarities or differences in their goals and approaches, to find out more about whether the gender of pre-service mathematics teachers influences their use of 3DMP in STEAM educational settings, particularly regarding the promotion of the four C’s.

2. Three-Dimensional Modeling and Printing (3DMP) as a Tool to Foster STEAM Competencies and the Four C’s of the 21st Century

According to the Council of the European Union (2018), active and creative participation in society and working life requires specific key competencies for lifelong learning, including technological and social competencies supporting innovations. These skills include problem-solving, critical thinking, collaboration, computational thinking, self-regulation, and creativity (Council of the European Union, 2018). Creativity, alongside critical thinking, communication, and collaboration, is also part of the four C’s of the 21st century and is identified as important to foster (Trilling & Fadel, 2012). Such skills can be promoted by introducing art and design thinking into STEM education and creating STEAM learning experiences (Wittayakhom & Piriyasurawong, 2020). Integrating arts and creating STEAM exercises can help break down boundaries between subjects and enrich learning scenarios with cultural aspects for more sensitive and sustainable problem-solving (Perales & Aróstegui, 2021; Ulbrich et al., 2024). Innovative new ways to solve problems considering environmental and cultural facts are useful for future challenges and emerging new jobs considering local constraints, new technologies, and eco-friendly industries (OECD, 2023). According to Leavy et al. (2023), interdisciplinary approaches and new technologies often need concepts of multiple STEAM subjects, creating connections between them and the real world (Zapata et al., 2022).

STEAM learning scenarios can be achieved, for example, by using new technologies such as digital fabrication, including 3DMP (Leavy et al., 2023; Kit Ng et al., 2022), and often have an interdisciplinary approach incorporating many subjects at the same time (Liao, 2016). STEAM learning scenarios can help develop skills from STEM subjects, such as mathematical or computational thinking, as well as skills from the four C’s, such as creativity and communication skills (Zapata et al., 2022). Positive effects of both STEM and STEAM on developing and fostering creativity can be observed, according to the literature (Aguilera & Ortiz-Revilla, 2021). STEAM has the potential to be interdisciplinary and can blend the boundaries of subjects even more to the point where subjects are no longer clearly distinguishable, creating transdisciplinarity. Such experiences can contain aspects of the four C’s and, therefore, help develop such skills in students (Liao, 2016). As 3DMP can be seen inherently as a STEAM endeavor where knowledge from several subjects such as engineering, mathematics, science, and arts is needed to succeed (Staribratov & Manolova, 2024), it can help create transdisciplinary STEAM learning exercises. Such a transdisciplinary 3DMP exercise can thus support training technical and social competencies, such as key competencies for lifelong learning and the four C’s of the 21st century. While STEAM education holds great promise, its implementation is influenced by factors such as teacher training, infrastructure, and societal expectations (Anđić et al., 2023), which can intersect with gender dynamics (Gavari-Starkie et al., 2023). Teachers can have a large impact on perceptions and self-perceptions of students regarding certain subjects, including STEAM subjects, and their teaching style can influence their performance in those subjects (Han et al., 2021).

PISA results reveal differences in performances between male and female students, showing more boys in many countries, including Austria, Brazil, and parts of the UK (Avvisati & Givord, 2023), scoring better in mathematics and girls higher in reading skills. Previous studies have shown that gender stereotypes in technical education can negatively impact female students’ interest and self-perception, and if women are not part of the development of, e.g., software, products might be less inviting, creating barriers for women (Spieler et al., 2020). Subjects such as mathematics and informatics, amongst other subjects, are important parts of STEM as well as STEAM and should be trained equally. Training skills such as reading and communication, connected to the four C’s to create innovative and sensitive solutions, will be important in students’ future lives. Combining creativity and technology using STEAM approaches could lead to more motivation and self-efficacy in both genders (Conradty et al., 2020). Motivation to exercise skills both in and outside of classrooms, in pedagogical settings, and in their daily lives and teachers’ performance with and attitude towards such technologies can have a large impact on students’ interests (Kelley et al., 2020). Haas et al. (2023) explain that 3DMP can connect STEAM subjects to students’ lives by, for example, recreating a real-world object in project-based settings. However, while teachers are role models for self-efficacy (Carrington et al., 2008) and education should foster all genders as equally as possible, integrating technologies such as 3DMP into teaching practices can be challenging for teachers, and appropriate training is important (Merayo & Ayuso, 2022).

3. Challenges for Teachers When Using Technology—Gender Perspective

Emerging technologies, such as 3DMP, are often not yet standard in teacher training programs and may not be a regular part of daily teaching practices. This can lead to a skills gap, particularly between newly trained teachers who had the opportunity to take courses on these technologies and more experienced teachers who, due to the length of time since their own training, may not have had the same exposure (Kaminskienė et al., 2022). Several factors, such as infrastructure, access to training opportunities, and teachers’ attitudes toward technology, influence whether educators feel comfortable integrating new technologies into their teaching. Additionally, gender differences in technology adoption have been observed in various educational contexts (Sharma & Srivastava, 2019). Prior research suggests that STEAM-based learning environments can help bridge such gaps and support gender equity in technology-focused education. For instance, Tan et al. (2020) found that utilizing Scratch in a STEAM-integrated approach helped reduce gender differences in students’ learning achievements in electricity concepts. Similarly, this study investigates whether 3DMP can provide an equally inclusive environment for male and female pre-service teachers, fostering engagement in technological practices across genders.

In the literature, results are sometimes ambiguous about whether gender influences how teachers perceive the use of technologies and how they react when using it, and there is an ongoing discussion about how comfortable teachers feel using technologies, leading to differences in self-efficacy (Šabić et al., 2021). In particular, for instructional purposes, the differences might not be as related to gender when using technologies such as computers (Scherer & Siddiq, 2015). Even though both male and female teachers can perceive technology as useful to a similar degree and have similar intentions to use a certain technology, female teachers might still face a larger challenge to use it compared to male teachers and hesitate or use it in a different way (Teo et al., 2015). In addition, female pre-service mathematics teachers seem to have more gender-stereotypical attributes than their female counterparts studying general mathematics in contrast to male students, indicating that they might be more hesitant to use technologies (Sticha, 2023). These challenges could be partly due to societal stereotypes and cultural expectations that frame technology as a male-dominated field, which can lead to feelings of lower self-confidence among female teachers regarding their digital competencies (Mercader & Duran-Bellonch, 2021). This sometimes less accurate self-perception regarding their digital competencies can lead to female teachers using technologies less frequently, leading, as a result, to less or different technology use in teacher practices (Teo et al., 2015; Gómez-Trigueros & Yáñez de Aldecoa, 2021). Female teachers, for instance, tend to emphasize the pedagogical integration of technology, focusing on how technology can enhance collaboration and communication within the classroom, while, on the other hand, male teachers often prioritize the technical aspects and practical use of tools, such as data handling and content creation (Gómez-Trigueros & Yáñez de Aldecoa, 2021).

Different opinions towards technology and self-perception might lead to uneven contact with technology, and since 3DMP is heavily intertwined with several technologies, this can be especially challenging for teachers (Anđić et al., 2023). Certain types of knowledge about technologies are therefore important for teachers to be able to use 3DMP. The TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) framework can help to understand the necessary aspects of knowledge teachers need to learn about to be able to use technology appropriately (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). While the content of exercises using 3DMP of male and female teachers might differ and female teachers could have different challenges using 3DMP, Kay (2006) states that appropriate preparation of teachers in training can reduce gender differences in using technology. In addition, certain areas of TPACK knowledge seem to support both genders to a similar extent, leading to more equal self-efficacy (Zeng et al., 2022), so a course based on these areas might create a gender-sensitive environment without large content adaptations. Given the findings that structured and inclusive teacher training can mitigate gender differences in technology adoption, the integration of 3DMP into teacher education programs could provide an effective approach to fostering technological self-efficacy among pre-service teachers.

Technological knowledge (TK) does not equally develop throughout teacher education compared to other skills, and there is a benefit in adapted teacher training fostering technological knowledge, especially for women, to feel well qualified to use technologies (Weidlich & Kalz, 2023). Gender-sensitive education fosters creativity and self-confidence, and activities connected to STEAM subjects can be more successful with gender-sensitive training for teachers (Merayo & Ayuso, 2022). This emphasizes the need for appropriate teacher training regarding new technologies. While all teachers seem to profit from professional development regarding certain technologies, in particular, female teachers seem to profit from courses (Scherer & Siddiq, 2015). Courses for pre-service teachers that inherently support all genders equally without having to adapt them, supporting the development of the four C’s, could be inherently useful for female teachers.

4. Method

During a non-compulsory university beginners’ course for pre-service mathematics teachers that we developed, we introduced them to the fundamentals of 3DMP and the potential of necessary and related applications in their future mathematics lessons. The course structure was based on Bloom’s Taxonomy (Krathwohl, 2002) and focused on pre-service knowledge needs such as technological and technological-pedagogical knowledge within the TPACK framework. Over 100 Austrian pre-service mathematics teacher students aged 22 to 46 enrolled in the course. Since the course was offered within mathematics teacher education, all participants were preparing to teach mathematics in combination with another STEAM subject, as is required in Austria, such as physics, arts, or chemistry. The course included a theoretical overview of how 3DMP connects to STEAM topics, an introduction to free online 3DMP tools, and practical exercises. Some participants continued to use 3DMP after the course, while others primarily took the course for credits.

Each course participant was required to develop an individual project by designing, modeling, and printing a 3D object and document their progress online on a publicly available platform. To support the development of their ideas of a 3D printable object to support their future classes, they explored online platforms with 3D models for inspiration before creating their own designs. The course participants then presented their project ideas in small peer feedback groups where they exchanged constructive feedback on feasibility and producibility. They then incorporated this feedback into their project documentation, noting any resulting modifications. To ensure feasibility, participants were encouraged to design models that could be printed within approximately ten minutes.

We collected and evaluated their online project documentations to better understand how preservice teachers engaged with 3DMP, which ideas they found useful, and to what extent their projects might support the development of the four C’s. Data collection of the online documentation took place over a two-year period by collecting the publicly available documentations after grading the course participants and giving them two months to set their documentations to private. We collected over 120 project descriptions and our dataset includes 106 completed individual projects from 71 female and 34 male course participants, submitted by the pre-service teachers enrolling in the university course. Group submissions and incomplete reports were excluded to ensure consistency in analysis. Course participants described their project goals, the challenges they encountered during the creation of the 3D object, their reasoning for using 3DMP in their chosen specific educational setting, and their perceptions of the benefits and difficulties of working with this technology.

5. Analysis

Two authors independently analyzed the 106 project documentations to evaluate their potential to foster transdisciplinary STEAM skills and the four C’s. To ensure consistency, we developed a rubric to guide the scoring process. The two analyzing authors with expertise in STEAM education developed a rating scale inspired by established evaluation principles (e.g., star ratings) to evaluate the projects. This scale assessed the four C’s, assigning a score from 0 to 5 based on the extent to which each C was present in the project:

• 0 points: The respective C was not present.
• 1–2 points: The C was included but not central to the project.
• 3–4 points: The C was a key component of the project.
• 5 points: The C was essential to the entire activity.

Each C was assessed on a scale from 0 to 5, with criteria defined as follows:

Table 1. Explanation of the scoring system.

Four C’s	Low Score	High Score
Collaboration	Collaboration is optional or incidental (e.g., side tasks).	Collaboration is central, requiring teamwork to achieve a goal (e.g., group game).
Communication	Minimal interaction, occasional exchanges.	Structured communication is integral, such as in group-based projects.
Critical Thinking	Limited problem-solving involvement (e.g., observing).	Active engagement in solving complex problems (e.g., puzzle-solving).
Creativity	Predefined tasks with limited creative freedom.	Original creation, personalization, or innovative solutions are central.

shows the scoring system we used to evaluate to which extent the exercises foster the four C’s. For example, a project involving a collaborative board game scored 5 in Collaboration and Communication, as students worked together toward a shared goal and exchanged ideas. Conversely, a project focused on visualizing a mathematical graph scored lower in Collaboration (1) but higher in Critical Thinking (4), as students in that project independently analyzed data to create the graph. In cases where we felt one or more of the four C’s were being fostered, we assigned the respective C a value between 1 and 5, depending on the degree to which the C was emphasized—with 1 indicating that the C was present but not central, and 5 indicating that it was crucial to the project. We then collected the points of projects in relation to the amount of male or female participants to see whether the average deviates or is similar. Given the introductory nature of the course, participants were unlikely to have extensive prior experience in 3DMP (only three students reported having a 3D printer) and related technologies, with only minimal technical exposure in some cases. In addition, prior technological experience is unlikely to have significantly influenced the results, as the study focused not on technical proficiency but on the conceptual integration of 3DMP into STEAM education. Since participation in the course was voluntary and targeted at pre-service teachers, it is reasonable to assume that their primary focus was on pedagogical applications rather than technical expertise.

The definitions of the four C’s were first discussed and refined by two experts to ensure consistency through an iterative process. Both evaluators independently scored a pilot sample of three projects before analyzing the full dataset. They then compared their scores in calibration sessions to resolve discrepancies and refine ambiguous criteria. This process was repeated until both authors reached a shared understanding of the rubric. Although we did not compute a formal interrater reliability coefficient (e.g., Cohen’s kappa) due to the limited sample size and the qualitative nature of the scoring process, our structured calibration and consensus-building approach provided a practical validation of our methodology and helped mitigate evaluator bias. Despite these efforts, differences in academic backgrounds and subjective interpretations of creativity and collaboration may have influenced individual scores. One evaluating author had a stronger background in educational technology, while the other specialized in mathematics education, which could have led to slight variations in assessing interdisciplinary elements.

The differences in scoring communication and collaboration reflect differing perspectives of these skills during the exercise from the authors. To address these differences and ensure comparability, we calculated the total scores for the four C’s for each project and used the mean values for gender-based comparisons. As an example, we describe a project from a male teacher focusing on designing personalized ice cube trays, which aimed at encouraging students to create unique geometric forms. The teacher wanted to engage students in a hands-on activity that fostered creativity, practical utility, and understanding of geometric concepts. The project introduced students to the design principles required for functional ice cube trays while allowing them to personalize their designs based on their interests.

Communication: Scores varied between evaluators. Author 1 assigned a 3, highlighting that students very likely discuss and coordinate their designs with peers. Author 2, however, rated it as 0, stating that communication was not mandatory for the activity.

Collaboration: Similarly, author 1 gave a score of 3, noting that students had to consider the results of their peers’ designs. In contrast, author 2 rated it as 0, arguing that collaboration was optional rather than integral to the task.

Creativity: Both authors awarded a 5, seeing a high degree of personalization involved, as each student created a unique ice cube tray design.

Critical Thinking: Scores were 4 and 5, reflecting the intellectual engagement required to design geometric forms and ensure the functionality of the trays.

The mean and median of each of the four C’s were calculated to see whether differences between evaluating authors would cancel each other out. Mean and median values were computed separately for each of the four C’s and for each evaluator. Projects from male and female course participants were analyzed independently and scores were aggregated per category and evaluator, followed by the calculation of means and medians to ensure a comprehensive comparison. Since two evaluating authors assessed each project and differed, particularly in the ratings for Communication and Collaboration, values were averaged across evaluators for the mean, while the median was examined separately to maintain interrater distinctions. We also aggregated the scores entirely to avoid giving the impression that one of the four C’s was more valuable than the others. Given that a Shapiro test did not show normal distribution in any of the results, more in-depth statistical analyses were avoided due to the small sample size. To minimize distortions from focusing on individual aspects, we not only took scores for each C separately but also calculated the total sum of all four C’s for each project. For instance, a group project might emphasize communication and collaboration while requiring less creativity. In one case, a project where students individually modeled puzzle pieces received high scores for Communication (4) and Collaboration (3) but lower scores for Creativity (2) and Critical Thinking (1).

In addition to the collected data and the scoring, we took notes on possible STEAM components. In the case of the ice cubes, the project incorporates STEAM components, including physics (understanding ice and material constraints) and arts (personalized design). Looking at the content of the projects, we analyzed thematic differences in project selection between male and female participants by applying k-means clustering to the project descriptions. The first step was to determine how many clusters best represented the data. We used the Elbow Method, a heuristic for finding the optimal number of topic clusters, which showed that four clusters provided a good balance between detail and generalization. Each cluster represents a thematic focus in the project topics, based on the following keywords:

• Cluster 0: Geometrical constructions and puzzles
• Cluster 1: Probability, dice, and stochastics
• Cluster 2: Proofs and mathematical concepts (for example, the Pythagorean theorem)
• Cluster 3: Drawings, and real-world applications (such as jewelry, food, …)

After clustering the projects, we extracted the most relevant keywords from each group using k-means to interpret their thematic focus and looked for gender-based preferences. We counted how many projects from males and females were assigned to each cluster after normalizing the data by calculating the percentage of each gender that selected each cluster to ensure a fair comparison despite the different group sizes.

6. Results

The gender distribution in Austrian pre-service teacher programs is predominantly female, with 77% of all participants being women (STATISTIK AUSTRIA, 2023). However, in the sciences and mathematics, the gender balance is more equal, with both genders contributing about 50% to the number of subject teachers (Unger et al., 2020). One of the study’s goals was to explore whether a technology-focused course appeals to both genders. The enrollment data (67% female, 33% male) suggests that female pre-service teachers showed strong interest in the course, exceeding the expected distribution of about equal proportions. This finding directly addresses the research objective regarding gender interest in technology-focused courses, demonstrating that female pre-service teachers were not only equally interested but actually enrolled in higher numbers than their male counterparts.

The mean four C’s score for projects created by male pre-service teachers was 6.5 (Author 1) and 10.9 (Author 2), while female course participants’ projects scored 6.2 (Author 1) and 10.2 (Author 2). These results show minimal differences, suggesting that both male and female pre-service teachers used 3DMP to foster the four C’s with similar potential. The distribution of the individual C’s was also not far off, as seen in Figure 1; the differences might be due to a bias of the evaluating author, leading to slightly higher Creativity, Communication, and Critical thinking values in male pre-service teachers.

We also considered the median due to the missing normal distribution and found only slight differences which might reveal a slight bias in the evaluators. The four C’s seemed to be similarly present, as is visible in

Table 2. The medians of the project scoring of each C per evaluator for men and women.

Evaluator	Gender	Creativity	Collaboration	Communication	Critical Thinking
A	M	2	0	0	3
A	F	1.5	0	0	3
B	M	2	2	3	3
B	F	2	2	3	4

. Creativity and Critical Thinking have slight differences, but the others were very similarly scored. Creativity was slightly measured lower in projects of female pre-service teachers by evaluator A and Critical Thinking slightly higher in men according to evaluator B, but the results are not significant, and it is therefore assumed that the four C’s are part of the projects equally.

While the quantitative analysis highlights gender parity in fostering the four C’s, the qualitative data indicates diverse ways participants integrated 3DMP into STEAM projects. Many projects had a mathematical foundation (e.g., Geometry) and extended into transdisciplinary applications, such as Spirographs connecting to art or Towers of Hanoi illustrating algorithmic thinking for informatics. Participants also provided reflections on how they envisioned using 3DMP in educational settings, as summarized in

Table 3. Examples of explanations within project documentation of how participants reasoned and planned to use 3DMP.

STEM/STEAM Considerations	Remark by Pre-Service Teacher, Translation by Authors
Little complex. A technological solution for a problem. Connects to mathematics mainly. Considered a STEM exercise.	As part of this project, I would like to create a template for a sine curve (or cosine curve). I have noticed that pupils have problems drawing a nice sine curve at the beginning. It might therefore be an advantage to work with templates at the beginning, as they make it easier to draw and also make the sine curve “tangible”.
Challenge offers certain complexity, connects to culture, and solutions can be personalized. Connects to several subjects transdisciplinary: mathematics, arts. Considered a STEAM exercise.	For some of us, it is easy to recognize mathematics in artistic activities or art objects. For “non-mathematicians”, however, this is often not the case. The questions “What do you need that for?”and “What is it good for?” are asked all too often of both art and mathematics. Making a piece of jewelry combines geometry and aesthetics.
Creativity, communication, personalisation, critical thinking, collaboration, tessellation, math. modelling Considered a STEAM exercise.	Students should create or invent shapes that fit together like a puzzle. Possible examples include typical puzzle shapes, but also unique tile shapes or other objects. The goal is to allow students to use their creativity to come up with various shapes.

.

Male and female participants selected Cluster 0 about geometrical constructions and puzzles most frequently, and 61.1% of female and 73.5% of male participants worked on projects in this category. Males concentrated more on this cluster, while females spread their projects more evenly across different themes. Cluster 2, about probability, dice, and stochastics, was noticeably more popular among females (9.7%) than males (2.9%), while clusters 1 and 3 showed a more balanced gender distribution. The results suggest that males focused more on one dominant topic area, while females explored a slightly broader range of themes.

Most Austrian teachers combined mathematical topics with at least one other STEAM subject, emphasizing problem-solving and design. Many also embraced gamification, developing projects such as labyrinths, visual proofs (e.g., Pythagoras keychains), or artistic representations of mathematical functions. These projects show the enthusiasm of pre-service teachers for creating engaging, problem-based STEAM learning experiences. While most topics overlapped with geometry, a wide variety of other mathematical topics were also found. In the 3DMP topic data, Austrian teachers’ data showed their enthusiasm for gamification or serious game opportunities by developing games, incorporating creativity and art into STEM subjects, and creating a STEAM learning experience, as well as seeing the potential for problem-based learning. Examples of visual proofs, such as Pythagoras keychains, included labyrinths, dancing figurines resembling certain functions, tools created by geometric forms, and puzzles.

7. Discussion

Our findings point towards gender differences promoting the four C’s in developed 3DMP projects being minimal in our setting. Contrary to our initial expectations of observing gender-based differences, the descriptive analysis of over 100 projects revealed that female and male pre-service teachers addressed the four C’s with a similar intensity. This suggests that traditional barriers may be overcome by the inclusive design and multi-modal learning experiences, in line with the findings of (Thu et al., 2024), and the support of considering TPACK for the design, as suggested by Tejera et al. (2025, in press). The environment bolstered confidence and self-efficacy among participants and promoted a balanced pedagogical approach, as stated by Evagorou (2024) and Thu et al. (2024). For instance, a visually impaired pre-service teacher applied 3D visualization techniques effectively, showing the course’s potential to be inclusive. These results imply that when teacher training programs are designed to be inclusive and supportive by providing access to various technological tools and pedagogical strategies, they may contribute to a more balanced approach in the classroom. Such training can help pre-service teachers support the development of the four C’s in their future students, thereby fostering an educational environment where equity and equality are central objectives.

PISA studies (OECD, 2013) indicate that gender differences in academic performance, particularly in Austria, show girls excelling in reading and boys in mathematics. Teachers influence how students engage with learning materials, shaping their experiences with digital tools in education (Bain & Rice, 2006). If teachers integrate technology similarly, regardless of gender, it may help reduce gender disparities in student learning outcomes. Our university course was designed based on Bloom’s Taxonomy and incorporated the need for TPACK knowledge. This aligns with the idea that structured TPACK-based training supports both genders equally, fostering balanced technology integration in classrooms and naturally promoting gender-sensitive learning environments (Baturay et al., 2017). Similar findings have been reported by Zeng et al. (2022), who found that gender does not moderate the relationship between information technology self-efficacy and technological pedagogical knowledge, suggesting that well-structured training with regard to TPACK can help minimize self-efficacy differences between male and female teachers. Previous studies have shown that female teachers often perceive their digital competencies as lower than their male counterparts, even though they tend to use technology in teaching more frequently (Mercader & Duran-Bellonch, 2021). This suggests that subjective self-assessment and actual technology use do not necessarily correlate. Our findings suggest that pre-service mathematics teachers, regardless of gender, developed 3DMP projects during our course that addressed the four C’s to a similar extent. We did not find substantial gender differences in the use of 3DMP, indicating that modern pre-service teachers, regardless of gender, engage with digital technologies in similar ways when provided with appropriate training and support. Our findings align with the idea that structured, inclusive teacher education programs can mitigate potential self-efficacy gaps and foster equal participation in technology-enhanced learning.

Male pre-service teachers enrolling in the course often emphasized technical aspects of constructing, while female pre-service teachers tended to incorporate geometric, artistic, and creative dimensions. However, both approaches were observed across genders, challenging existing literature that frames technology as a predominantly male domain (Jenson & De Castell, 2010). These findings suggest that integrating 3DMP into education could foster greater equity in developing the four C’s, regardless of the teacher’s gender. This aligns with findings from Gómez-Trigueros and Yáñez de Aldecoa (2021), suggesting that inclusive teacher training based on TPACK plays a valuable role in equipping educators to use emerging technologies effectively and can raise the digital teaching competency of female teachers. Such training could foster creative and technical learning environments that benefit students of all genders and could help reduce barriers to technology adoption. We also found that gender did not negatively impact participation in the technology course, as female pre-service teachers showed higher-than-expected enrollment. Furthermore, the minimal differences in project outcomes suggest that both genders engaged with 3DMP to a quite equal degree. This directly addresses the study’s objective regarding gender and technology use.

Given these findings, integrating 3DMP into teacher education programs represents a promising approach to fostering technological self-efficacy among pre-service teachers. Research indicates that technological knowledge (TK) does not develop naturally throughout teacher education (Weidlich & Kalz, 2023), highlighting the need for structured interventions. Our study suggests that 3DMP, as an applied and interdisciplinary tool, supports the development of the four C’s while providing a balanced learning experience that benefits all genders equally.

We propose the integration of structured TPACK-based modules that incorporate hands-on experiences with 3DMP and other emerging technologies to further enhance teacher training. This could be implemented through media and technology courses within teacher education curricula, ensuring equal access for male and female pre-service teachers adopting the Six Strategies for Effective Technology Integration (SQD Model, Tondeur et al., 2019, 2025), which emphasize authentic experiences, collaboration, and reflective practices. Institutions can help future educators build confidence in using technology-enhanced learning environments, promoting gender-equitable access to educational technology by systematically embedding adequate training in teacher preparation by technologies such as 3DMP.

8. Conclusions and Outlook

This study contributes to the literature by showing that gender differences in technology adoption among pre-service teachers are less pronounced than suggested by some earlier research. Moreover, it highlights the potential of 3DMP to foster inclusive STEAM education by bridging gaps in creativity and collaboration across genders. Moving towards more inclusive and equitable educational practices could, therefore, be achieved by encouraging diverse approaches to STEAM learning. Our findings contribute to ongoing discussions about how gender perceptions influence technology integration in education. Bain and Rice (2006) suggest that increased exposure to technology reduces hesitation and fosters confidence among teachers, regardless of gender. This confidence can enable teachers to effectively integrate complex technologies such as 3DMP into their lessons. Technologies such as 3DMP have the potential to be used in so-called Makerspaces, which are environments where any kind of people might be creative, and also get increasing attention in schools, but often are not tailored to the needs of all pupils, regardless of their gender (Buchner & Ojo, 2022). Supporting pupils’ self-efficacy by teachers who are confident in using technologies could lead to reduced differences in students’ attitudes towards STEAM careers, fostering greater equity in educational and professional opportunities. This aligns with Bresler’s (1995) findings that true co-equal integration of the arts remains challenging in interdisciplinary education. Future research should explore how STEAM curricula can ensure that the arts are not merely used instrumentally but contribute unique disciplinary insights.

While this study focuses on individual teacher projects, broader societal and institutional factors, such as school policies or cultural norms, undoubtedly influence technology adoption in classrooms. Future research should explore these dimensions to provide a more comprehensive understanding. Expanding this work to include diverse educational settings and a broader range of participants could shed light on how 3DMP might sustain long-term engagement with STEAM subjects and benefit underrepresented groups. Additionally, examining cultural, institutional, and pedagogical factors could deepen our understanding of the intersection between gender, technology, and education. By equipping teachers with the skills to integrate 3DMP into their lessons, we can create more engaging and effective learning environments that prepare students for the challenges of the 21st century.