Identification of Patterns in CO2 Emissions among 208 Countries: K-Means Clustering Combined with PCA and Non-Linear t-SNE Visualization
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Data Collection and Exploratory Analysis
4. Methodology
5. Empirical Results and Discussion
5.1. Clustering for Total CO2 Emissions
5.2. Clustering for CO2 per Capita Emissions
6. General Discussion
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
PCA Cluster | Countries |
---|---|
1 | Afghanistan, Albania, Andorra, Angola, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Aruba, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bermuda, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bonaire Sint Eustatius and Saba, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Cote d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Curacao, Cyprus, Czechia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, East Timor, Ecuador, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, French Polynesia, Gabon, Gambia, Georgia, Ghana, Greece, Greenland, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hong Kong, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kosovo, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macao, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Micronesia (country), Moldova, Mongolia, Montserrat, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Niue, North Korea, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Palestine, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Rwanda, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Sint Maarten (Dutch part), Slovakia, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Sudan, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Vietnam, Wallis and Futuna, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe. |
2 | China. |
3 | United States |
4 | Algeria, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Nigeria, Oceania, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, United Kingdom, Venezuela. |
5 | Russia. |
t-SNE Cluster | Countries |
---|---|
1 | Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Bermuda, Bonaire Sint Eustatius and Saba, British Virgin Islands, Burundi, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Comoros, Cook Islands, Djibouti, Dominica, Eritrea, Gambia, Greenland, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Kiribati, Liechtenstein, Marshall Islands, Micronesia (country), Montserrat, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna. |
2 | Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Bolivia, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Chad, Chile, Colombia, Congo, Croatia, Cuba, Czechia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Finland, Gabon, Ghana, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Lithuania, Morocco, Myanmar, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Sudan, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Yemen. |
3 | Afghanistan, Albania, Armenia, Benin, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Cote dIvoire, Curacao, Cyprus, El Salvador, Estonia, Ethiopia, Georgia, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Luxembourg, Moldova, Mongolia, Mozambique, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, North Korea, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Senegal, Slovenia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Uganda, Uruguay, Zambia, Zimbabwe. |
4 | Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Libya, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, Nigeria, Oceania, Oman, Pakistan, Poland, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam. |
5 | Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Bhutan, Botswana, East Timor, Eswatini, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Kosovo, Lesotho, Liberia, Macao, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Malta, Mauritania, Mauritius, New Caledonia, Niger, Palestine, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Sint Maarten (Dutch part), South Sudan, Suriname, Togo. |
Appendix C
PCA Cluster | Countries |
---|---|
1 | Afghanistan, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belize, Benin, Bolivia, Bonaire Sint Eustatius and Saba, Botswana, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Cook Islands, Costa Rica, Cote dIvoire, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, East Timor, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, French Polynesia, Gambia, Georgia, Ghana, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lesotho, Liberia, Liechtenstein, Macao, Madagascar, Malawi, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mauritius, Micronesia (country), Moldova, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Niue, North Korea, Pakistan, Palestine, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Rwanda, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Togo, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Wallis and Futuna, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe. |
2 | Bahrain, Brunei, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Trinidad and Tobago, United Arab Emirates. |
3 | Albania, Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Austria, Bahamas, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Bermuda, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, British Virgin Islands, Bulgaria, Chile, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Hong Kong, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kosovo, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oceania, Palau, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Seychelles, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Turks and Caicos Islands, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vietnam. |
4 | Australia, China, Curacao, Czechia, Estonia, Kazakhstan, Luxembourg, Mongolia, New Caledonia, Sint Maarten (Dutch part), South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, United States. |
5 | Algeria, Canada, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Russia, Turkmenistan, Venezuela. |
6 | Qatar. |
t-SNE Cluster | Countries |
---|---|
1 | Afghanistan, Angola, Bangladesh, Belize, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Cote dIvoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, East Timor, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania, Micronesia (country), Mozambique, Myanmar, Niger, Nigeria, Palestine, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Samoa, Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, Vanuatu, Yemen, Zimbabwe. |
2 | Algeria, Bahrain, Brunei, Canada, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Qatar, Russia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkmenistan, Venezuela. |
3 | Armenia, Bolivia, Botswana, Cambodia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Djibouti, El Salvador, Fiji, Guatemala, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Mauritius, Moldova, Morocco, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, North Korea, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Senegal, Sri Lanka, Syria, Tajikistan, Togo, Uruguay, Zambia. |
4 | Andorra, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Bermuda, Bonaire Sint Eustatius and Saba, British Virgin Islands, Cook Islands, Curacao, Dominica, French Polynesia, Greenland, Grenada, Liechtenstein, Macao, Maldives, Malta, Marshall Islands, Montserrat, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Saint Helena, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Singapore, Sint Maarten (Dutch part), Suriname, Turks and Caicos Islands, Wallis and Futuna. |
5 | Albania, Argentina, Austria, Azerbaijan, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, France, Georgia, Guyana, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Jordan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Mexico, Panama, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom, Uzbekistan, Vietnam. |
6 | Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, China, Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Mongolia, New Caledonia, Oceania, Poland, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United States. |
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ID | Variable | OWD Description |
---|---|---|
1 | CO2 | Total annual CO2 emissions, excluding land-use change, measured in million tons. |
2 | cement_CO2 | Annual CO2 emissions from cement, measured in million tons. |
3 | coal_CO2 | Annual CO2 emissions from coal, measured in million tons. |
4 | flaring_CO2 | Annual CO2 emissions from flaring, measured in million tons. |
5 | gas_CO2 | Annual CO2 emissions from gas, measured in million tons. |
6 | oil_CO2 | Annual CO2 emissions from oil, measured in million tons. |
7 | CO2_per_capita | Total annual CO2 emissions per capita, excluding land-use change, measured in tons per person. |
8 | cement_CO2_per_capita | Annual CO2 emissions per capita from cement, measured in tons per person. |
9 | coal_CO2_per_capita | Annual CO2 emissions per capita from coal, measured in tons per person. |
10 | flaring_CO2_per_capita | Annual CO2 emissions per capita from flaring, measured in tons per person. |
11 | gas_CO2_per_capita | Annual CO2 emissions per capita from gas, measured in tons per person. |
12 | oil_CO2_per_capita | Annual CO2 emissions per capita from oil, measured in tons per person. |
Calinski–Harabasz Score | Davies–Bouldin Score |
---|---|
: Total number of points |
Emissions | Emissions per Capita | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
K | Calinski–Harabasz Score | Davies–Bouldin Score | K | Calinski–Harabasz Score | Davies–Bouldin Score |
2 | 292.2055 | 0.6177 | 2 | 85.4835 | 1.3363 |
3 | 426.8634 | 0.4007 | 3 | 83.1685 | 1.1873 |
4 | 539.2618 | 0.4615 | 4 | 78.5524 | 1.0480 |
5 | 722.2275 | 0.3873 | 5 | 81.9564 | 1.0041 |
6 | 885.5292 | 0.4742 | 6 | 85.6478 | 1.0135 |
Cluster PCA | CO2 | Cement | Coal | Flaring | Gas | Oil |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 35.7394 | 1.6005 | 10.9583 | 0.4139 | 9.5240 | 13.0532 |
2 | 10,173.2746 | 761.5619 | 7424.0688 | 3.9222 | 469.4575 | 1353.8085 |
3 | 5297.2622 | 38.2838 | 1402.0755 | 61.3207 | 1507.0304 | 2260.4330 |
4 | 535.0613 | 18.2968 | 172.0646 | 10.0039 | 123.5781 | 208.3561 |
5 | 1665.7432 | 22.8961 | 401.1005 | 49.4200 | 795.1316 | 380.9303 |
Cluster t-SNE | CO2 | cement | coal | flaring | gas | oil |
1 | 0.2682 | 0.0034 | 0.0006 | 0.0000 | 0.0014 | 0.2628 |
2 | 42.2721 | 1.5699 | 8.8626 | 0.5327 | 11.4048 | 19.6092 |
3 | 10.6192 | 0.8461 | 3.4490 | 0.0139 | 0.6759 | 5.6263 |
4 | 749.3502 | 32.1408 | 331.0221 | 8.6567 | 151.0933 | 219.8762 |
5 | 2.3122 | 0.0679 | 0.5565 | 0.0120 | 0.0216 | 1.6541 |
Cluster PCA | CO2 | Cement | Coal | Flaring | Gas | Oil |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1.4088 | 0.0475 | 0.1239 | 0.0158 | 0.1705 | 1.0508 |
2 | 14.0735 | 0.2184 | 5.5503 | 0.1023 | 1.4771 | 6.6421 |
3 | 22.5878 | 0.3836 | 0.2800 | 0.4519 | 14.8261 | 6.6463 |
4 | 39.4083 | 0.7862 | 0.0000 | 0.9169 | 33.7095 | 3.9958 |
5 | 6.3762 | 0.1661 | 1.2870 | 0.0372 | 1.0818 | 3.7599 |
6 | 7.4975 | 0.1525 | 0.4782 | 0.6630 | 3.2760 | 2.9102 |
Cluster t-SNE | CO2 | cement | coal | flaring | gas | oil |
1 | 0.4751 | 0.0095 | 0.0379 | 0.0129 | 0.0244 | 0.3904 |
2 | 12.8029 | 0.1922 | 0.4815 | 0.5721 | 7.9014 | 3.6309 |
3 | 1.3355 | 0.0873 | 0.2785 | 0.0043 | 0.1556 | 0.8098 |
4 | 6.3349 | 0.0012 | 0.0084 | 0.0000 | 0.1815 | 6.1437 |
5 | 4.2287 | 0.2231 | 0.5766 | 0.0338 | 1.1025 | 2.2598 |
6 | 10.4276 | 0.2389 | 4.4099 | 0.0869 | 2.0267 | 3.5913 |
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Jiménez-Preciado, A.L.; Cruz-Aké, S.; Venegas-Martínez, F. Identification of Patterns in CO2 Emissions among 208 Countries: K-Means Clustering Combined with PCA and Non-Linear t-SNE Visualization. Mathematics 2024, 12, 2591. https://doi.org/10.3390/math12162591
Jiménez-Preciado AL, Cruz-Aké S, Venegas-Martínez F. Identification of Patterns in CO2 Emissions among 208 Countries: K-Means Clustering Combined with PCA and Non-Linear t-SNE Visualization. Mathematics. 2024; 12(16):2591. https://doi.org/10.3390/math12162591
Chicago/Turabian StyleJiménez-Preciado, Ana Lorena, Salvador Cruz-Aké, and Francisco Venegas-Martínez. 2024. "Identification of Patterns in CO2 Emissions among 208 Countries: K-Means Clustering Combined with PCA and Non-Linear t-SNE Visualization" Mathematics 12, no. 16: 2591. https://doi.org/10.3390/math12162591