Association between Vitamin D Status and Coronary Heart Disease among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Case-Control Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Population
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Biochemical Measurements
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Cases (n = 130)% | Control (n = 195)% | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | |||
<49 | 25 | 30 | |
≥49 | 75 | 70 | 0.340 |
Gender | |||
Male | 63 | 63 | |
Female | 37 | 37 | >0.05 |
Marital status | |||
Single | 5 | 17 | |
Married | 70 | 72 | <0.001 |
Divorced | 25 | 11 | |
Citizenship | |||
Saudis | 81 | 63 | |
Non-Saudis | 19 | 37 | <0.001 |
Place of residence | |||
Rural | 12 | 1 | |
Urban | 86 | 98 | |
Semi-rural | 2 | 1 | <0.001 |
Education | |||
Up to primary levels | 51 | 14 | |
High School and bachelor or diploma degree | 25 | 35 | <0.001 |
Master or PhD degree | 24 | 51 | |
Employment | |||
Employed (Full time, Part time, self-employed) | 32 | 82 | |
Unemployed (Student, Retired, Housewife) | 68 | 18 | <0.001 |
Family income (SR */monthly) | |||
<5000 | 72 | 69 | |
5000–15000 | 10 | 19 | |
15000 ≥ 25000 | 18 | 12 | 0.036 |
Smoke cigarettes | |||
Current <20 cigarettes/day | 15 | 10 | |
Previous smoker | 26 | 5 | |
Non-smoker | 59 | 85 | <0.001 |
Water pipe smoker | |||
Yes | 3 | 10 | |
No | 97 | 90 | 0.022 |
Moderate exercise | |||
Never and rarely | 34 | 44 | |
1–2 times/week | 17 | 24 | |
More than 3–4 times/week | 49 | 32 | 0.007 |
Vigorous exercise | |||
Never and rarely | 98 | 96 | |
1–2 times/week | 1 | 0 | |
More than 3–4 times/week | 1 | 4 | 0.259 |
Family history of CVD | |||
Yes | 41 | 42 | |
No | 59 | 58 | 0.890 |
Variable | Cases (n = 130)% | Control (n = 195)% | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
BMI | |||
Normal weight < 25 kg/m² | 31 | 33 | |
Overweight 25–29.9 kg/m² | 25 | 45 | <0.001 |
Obese ≥ 30 kg/m² | 44 | 22 | |
SBP | |||
<112.58 mmHg | 35 | 31 | |
112.59–128.42 mmHg | 29 | 38 | 0.031 |
≥128.43 mmHg | 36 | 31 | |
DBP | |||
<69.58 mmHg | 56 | 17 | |
69.59–79 mmHg | 23 | 43 | <0.001 |
≥79.1 mmHg | 21 | 40 | |
Fasting glucose (FPG) | |||
<93 mg/dL | 21 | 42 | |
93.1–112.42 mg/dL | 28 | 37 | <0.001 |
≥112.43 mg/dL | 51 | 21 | |
Total Cholesterol | |||
<154 mg/dL | 56 | 20 | |
154.1–193 mg/dL | 28 | 37 | <0.001 |
≥193.1 mg/dL | 16 | 43 | |
Vitamin D | |||
Adequate ≥ 20 ng/mL | 24 | 61 | |
Insufficient 10 to < 19.9 ng/mL | 30 | 36 | <0.001 |
Deficiency < 10 ng/mL | 46 | 3 |
Vitamin D status | Crude OR 1 (95% CI) | Adjusted OR 2 (95% CI) | Adjusted OR 3 (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|
Adequate (≥20 ng/mL) | 1.00 (referent) | 1.00 (referent) | 1.00 (referent) |
Deficient (<20 ng/mL) * | 5 (3.04–8.20) <0.001 | 7.8 (3.79–16.3) <0.001 | 6.5 (2.7–15) <0.001 |
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Aljefree, N.M.; Lee, P.; Alsaqqaf, J.M.; Ahmed, F. Association between Vitamin D Status and Coronary Heart Disease among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Case-Control Study. Healthcare 2016, 4, 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4040077
Aljefree NM, Lee P, Alsaqqaf JM, Ahmed F. Association between Vitamin D Status and Coronary Heart Disease among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Case-Control Study. Healthcare. 2016; 4(4):77. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4040077
Chicago/Turabian StyleAljefree, Najlaa M., Patricia Lee, Jamal M. Alsaqqaf, and Faruk Ahmed. 2016. "Association between Vitamin D Status and Coronary Heart Disease among Adults in Saudi Arabia: A Case-Control Study" Healthcare 4, no. 4: 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4040077