Chlamydia Trachomatis Prevalence in Asymptomatic Women in Madrid: Study Findings and Their Association with Risk Factors and Mental Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Ethics
2.2. Study Population
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- World Health Organization (WHO). Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs). Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sexually-transmitted-infections-(stis) (accessed on 9 March 2023).
- Rowley, J.; Vander Hoorn, S.; Korenromp, E.; Low, N.; Unemo, M.; Abu-Raddad, L.J.; Chico, R.M.; Smolak, A.; Newman, L.; Gottlieb, S.; et al. Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, trichomoniasis and syphilis: Global prevalence and incidence estimates, 2016. Bull. World Health Organ. 2019, 97, 548–562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Haggerty, C.L.; Gottlieb, S.L.; Taylor, B.D.; Low, N.; Xu, F.; Ness, R.B. Risk of Sequelae after Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Infection in Women. J. Infect. Dis. 2010, 201, 134–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Price, M.J.; Ades, A.E.; De Angelis, D.; Welton, N.J.; Macleod, J.; Soldan, K.; Simms, I.; Turner, K.; Horner, P.J. Risk of pelvic inflammatory disease following Chlamydia trachomatis infection: Analysis of prospective studies with a multistate model. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2013, 178, 484–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stamm, W.E. Chlamydia screening: Expanding the scope. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004, 141, 570–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fenton, K.A.; LaMontagne, D.S.; Randall, S. National screening programme for Chlamydia exists in England. BMJ 2004, 329, 172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Low, N. Current status of chlamydia screening in Europe. Euro Surveill. 2004, 8, pii=2566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wilson, J.S.; Honey, E.; Templeton, A.; Paavonen, J.; Mårdh, P.A.; Stary, A.; Stray-Pedersen, B. A systematic review of the prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis among European women. Hum. Reprod. Update 2002, 8, 385–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Chlamydia infection. In Annual Epidemiological Report for 2019; ECDC: Stockholm, Sweden, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Harris, P.A.; Taylor, R.; Thielke, R.; Payne, J.; Gonzalez, N.; Conde, J.G. Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. J. Biomed. Inform. 2009, 42, 377–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herrero, M.J.; Blanch, J.; Peri, J.M.; De Pablo, J.; Pintor, L.; Bulbena, A. A validation study of the hospital anxiety and depression scale (HADS) in a Spanish population. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 2003, 25, 277–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fernández-Benítez, C.; Mejuto-López, P.; Otero-Guerra, L.; Margolles-Martins, M.J.; Suárez-Leiva, P.; Vazquez, F.; Chlamydial Primary Care Group. Prevalence of genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection among young men and women in Spain. BMC Infect. Dis. 2013, 13, 388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Huai, P.; Li, F.; Chu, T.; Liu, D.; Liu, J.; Zhang, F. Prevalence of genital Chlamydia trachomatis infection in the general population: A meta-analysis. BMC Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 589. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goulet, V.; De Barbeyrac, B.; Raherison, S.; Prudhomme, M.; Semaille, C.; Warszawski, J. Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis: Results from the first national population-based survey in France. Sex. Transm. Infect. 2010, 86, 263–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sonnenberg, P.; Clifton, S.; Beddows, S.; Field, N.; Soldan, K.; Tanton, C.; Mercer, C.H.; Da Silva, F.C.; Alexander, S.; Copas, A.J.; et al. Prevalence, risk factors, and uptake of interventions for sexually transmitted infections in Britain: Findings from the National Surveys of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (Natsal). Lancet 2013, 382, 1795–1806. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Unidad de vigilancia de VIH, ITS y Hepatitis B y C. Boletín de Vigilancia Epidemiológica de las Infecciones de Transmisión Sexual, 2021. Madrid: Centro Nacional de Epidemiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III/División de Control de VIH, ITS, Hepatitis Virales y Tuberculosis, Dirección General de Salud Pública. Published in February 2023. Available online: https://www.sanidad.gob.es/eu/ciudadanos/enfLesiones/enfTransmisibles/sida/vigilancia/doc/Vigilancia_ITS_1995_2021.pdf (accessed on 20 January 2024).
- US Preventive Services Task Force; Davidson, K.W.; Barry, M.J.; Mangione, C.M.; Cabana, M.; Caughey, A.B.; Davis, E.M.; Donahue, K.E.; Doubeni, C.A.; Krist, A.H.; et al. Screening for Chlamydia and Gonorrhea: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA 2021, 326, 949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Public Health England Hosts the UK National Screening Committee. Review of the UK National Screening Committee—Recommendations. United Kingdom Published June 2015. Available online: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a802f35e5274a2e8ab4ead3/20150602_-_Final_Recommendations.pdf (accessed on 20 January 2024).
- Honey, E.; Augood, C.; Templeton, A.; Russell, I.; Paavonen, J.; Mårdh, P.A.; Stary, A.; Stray-Pedersen, B. Cost effectiveness of screening for Chlamydia trachomatis: A review of published studies. Sex. Transm. Infect. 2002, 78, 406–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- STD Facts—Chlamydia. 2022. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/chlamydia/about/index.html?CDC_AAref_Val=https://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/stdfact-chlamydia.html (accessed on 14 September 2023).
- Phillips, J.A. Chlamydia Infections. Workplace Health Saf. 2019, 67, 375–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armstrong-Mensah, E.; Ebiringa, D.P.; Whitfield, K.; Coldiron, J. Genital Chlamydia Trachomatis Infection: Prevalence, Risk Factors and Adverse Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes in Children and Women in sub-Saharan Africa. Int. J. Matern. Child Health AIDS 2021, 10, 251–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.R.; Kaufman, J.S.; Pence, B.W.; Gaynes, B.N.; Adimora, A.A.; Weir, S.S.; Miller, W.C. Depression, sexually transmitted infection, and sexual risk behavior among young adults in the United States. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2009, 163, 644. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Singh, S.; Singh, S.K. Psychological health and well-being in patients with sexually transmitted infections: A prospective cross-sectional study. Indian J. Sex. Transm. Dis. AIDS 2021, 42, 125–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vedhara, K.; Ayling, K.; Jia, R.; Fairclough, L.; Morling, J.R.; Ball, J.K.; Knight, H.; Blake, H.; Corner, J.; Denning, C.; et al. Relationship Between Anxiety, Depression, and Susceptibility to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection: Proof of Concept. J. Infect. Dis. 2022, 225, 2137–2141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosas Cancio-Suárez, M.; Ron, R.; Díaz-Álvarez, J.; Martínez-Sanz, J.; Serrano-Villar, S.; Moreno, S.; Sánchez-Conde, M. Prevalence, characteristics, and associated risk factors of drug consumption and chemsex use among individuals attending an STI clinic (EpITs STUDY). Front. Public Health 2023, 11, 1285057. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Chlamydia Trachomatis | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | |||
N = 194 | N = 8 | |||
Age (n = 201) | 39.3 (9.3) | 33.5 (7.9) | 0.081 | |
Nationality (n = 195) | Spain | 117 (62.2%) | 5 (71.4%) | 0.16 |
Europe | 14 (7.4%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
South America | 54 (28.7%) | 1 (14.3%) | ||
North America | 2 (1.1%) | 1 (14.3%) | ||
Asia | 1 (0.5%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
Drug consumption (n = 200) | No | 185 (96.4%) | 6 (75.0%) | 0.044 |
Yes | 7 (3.6%) | 2 (25.0%) | ||
Type of drug | ||||
Cannabis | 4 (2.1%) | 1 (12.5%) | ||
Cocaine | 1 (0.5%) | |||
MDMA or molly | 5 (2.6%) | |||
Others | 1 (0.5%) | |||
Smoke (n = 200) | Yes | 41 (21.4%) | 3 (37.5%) | 0.38 |
No | 151 (78.6%) | 5 (62.5%) | ||
Exclusive relationship (n = 201) | Yes | 156 (80.4%) | 4 (50.0%) | 0.056 |
No | 37 (19.1%) | 4 (50.0%) | ||
Number of sexual partners in the last 5 years (n = 195) | >50 | 1 (0.5%) | 0 (0.0%) | * |
>10 | 15 (8.0%) | 2 (25.0%) | ||
>5 | 23 (12.3%) | 3 (37.5%) | ||
≤5 | 148 (79.1%) | 3 (37.5%) | ||
Type of sexual relationship (n = 192) | WSM | 178 (95.7%) | 4 (66.7%) | * |
WSW | 3 (1.6%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
WSMW | 5 (2.7%) | 2 (33.3%) | ||
Have you had unprotected sex (including oral sex) in the last 3 months (n = 168) | Always | 14 (8.6%) | 0 (0.0%) | 0.36 |
In more than half | 21 (13.0%) | 2 (33.3%) | ||
In less than half | 40 (24.7%) | 2 (33.3%) | ||
Never | 87 (53.7%) | 2 (33.3%) | ||
Have you ever provided sexual services for money? (n = 200) | No | 192 (100.0%) | 8 (100.0%) | |
Yes | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
Have you ever received sex for money? (n = 200) | No | 193 (100.0%) | 7 (100.0%) | |
Yes | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
Previous STI (n = 199) | Yes | 13 (6.8%) | 2 (25.0%) | 0.11 |
No | 178 (93.2%) | 6 (75.0%) | ||
Type of previous STI | Chlamydia | 4 (33.0%) | 1 (50.0%) | |
Gonococo | 1 (8.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | ||
Herpes | 7 (58.0%) | 1 (50.0%) | ||
HADS depression (n = 197) | 2 (0; 6) | 3.5 (1; 5) | 0.594 | |
HADS stress: (n = 196) | 6 (2; 9) | 6 (5; 16) | 0.258 |
ITS | OR (95% CI) | p-Value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No | Yes | ||||
N = 181 | N = 21 | ||||
Age (n = 201) | 39.7 (9.2) | 34.0 (8.6) | 0.93 (0.88–0.98) | ** | |
Nationality (n = 195) | Spain | 111 (63.4%) | 11 (55.0%) | Ref. | |
Europe | 11 (6.3%) | 3 (15.0%) | 2.75 (0.67–11.37) | 0.162 | |
South America | 50 (28.6%) | 5 (25.0%) | 1.01 (0.33–3.06) | 0.987 | |
North America | 2 (1.1%) | 1 (5.0%) | 5.05 (0.42–60.2) | 0.201 | |
Asia | 1 (0.6%) | 0 (0.0%) | - | - | |
Drug consumption (n = 200) | No | 174 (97.2%) | 17 (81.0%) | Ref. | |
Yes | 5 (2.8%) | 2 (9.5%) | 8.19 (2.01–33.4) | ** | |
Type of drug | |||||
Cannabis | 3 (1.7%) | 2 (9.5%) | |||
Cocaine | 1 (0.5%) | 0 (0.0% | |||
MDMA or molly | 3 (1.7%) | 3 (9.5%) | |||
Others | 1 (0.5%) | 0 (0.0%) | |||
Smoke (n = 200) | No | 140 (78.2%) | 16 (76.2%) | Ref. | |
Yes | 39 (21.8%) | 5 23.8%) | 1.12 (0.39–3.25) | 0.834 | |
Exclusive relationship (n = 201) | No | 34 (18.9%) | 7 (33.3%) | Ref. | 0.127 |
Yes | 146 (81.1%) | 14 (66.7%) | 0.47 (0.17–1.24) | ||
Number of sexual partners in the last 5 years (n = 195) | ≤5 | 141 (80.6%) | 10 (50.0%) | Ref. | |
>5 | 34 (19.4%) | 10 (50.0%) | 4.15 (1.60–10.76) | ** | |
Type of sexual relationship (n = 192) | WSM | 167 (96.5%) | 15 (78.9%) | Ref. | |
WSW | 3 (1.7%) | 0 (0.0%) | - | - | |
WSMW | 3 (1.7%) | 4 (21.1%) | 14.84 (3.03–72.6) | ** | |
Have you had unprotected sex (including oral sex) in the last 3 months (n = 168) | Never | 82 (54.7%) | 7 (38.9%) | Ref. | |
In less than half | 38 (25.3%) | 4 (22.2%) | 1.23 (0.34–4.47) | 0.750 | |
In more than half | 17 (11.3%) | 6 (33.3%) | 4.13 (1.23–13.85) | 0.021 | |
Always | 13 (8.7%) | 1 (5.6%) | 0.90 (0.10–7.94) | 0.925 | |
Have you ever provided sexual services for money? (n = 200) | No | 179 (100.0%) | 21 (100.0%) | ||
Yes | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |||
Have you ever received sex for money? (n = 200) | No | 180 (100.0%) | 20 (100.0%) | ||
Yes | 0 (0.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |||
Previous STI (n = 199) | No | 167 (93.8%) | 17 (81.0%) | Ref. | |
Yes | 11 (6.2%) | 4 (19.0%) | 3.57 (1.03–12.45) | ** | |
Type of previous STI | Chlamydia | 4 (40.0%) | 1 (25.0%) | ||
Gonococo | 1 (10.0%) | 0 (0.0%) | |||
Herpes | 5 (50.0%) | 3 (75.0%) | |||
HADS depression (n = 197) | 2 (0; 6) | 4 (1; 11) | 1.11 (1.01–1.22) | ** | |
HADS stress: (n = 196) | 6 (2; 9) | 6.5 (3; 13) | 1.11 (1.00–1.23) | 0.054 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rosas Cancio-Suárez, M.; Martín-Jiménez, E.; Rodríguez-Domínguez, M.; García Da Silva, A.M.; Fernández-Félix, B.M.; Romero-Hernández, B.; Cárdenas-Isasi, M.J.; Moreno, S.; Serrano-Villar, S.; Sánchez-Conde, M. Chlamydia Trachomatis Prevalence in Asymptomatic Women in Madrid: Study Findings and Their Association with Risk Factors and Mental Health. Biomedicines 2024, 12, 1999. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12091999
Rosas Cancio-Suárez M, Martín-Jiménez E, Rodríguez-Domínguez M, García Da Silva AM, Fernández-Félix BM, Romero-Hernández B, Cárdenas-Isasi MJ, Moreno S, Serrano-Villar S, Sánchez-Conde M. Chlamydia Trachomatis Prevalence in Asymptomatic Women in Madrid: Study Findings and Their Association with Risk Factors and Mental Health. Biomedicines. 2024; 12(9):1999. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12091999
Chicago/Turabian StyleRosas Cancio-Suárez, Marta, Esther Martín-Jiménez, Mario Rodríguez-Domínguez, Ana María García Da Silva, Borja M. Fernández-Félix, Beatriz Romero-Hernández, María José Cárdenas-Isasi, Santiago Moreno, Sergio Serrano-Villar, and Matilde Sánchez-Conde. 2024. "Chlamydia Trachomatis Prevalence in Asymptomatic Women in Madrid: Study Findings and Their Association with Risk Factors and Mental Health" Biomedicines 12, no. 9: 1999. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12091999