Assessing the GHG Emissions and Savings during the Recycling of NMC Lithium-Ion Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
- (1)
- Objective design: With the aim of assessing the environmental impact and achieving carbon neutrality in the recycling process of LIB, this paper introduces a carbon-emission assessment model which compares the variations between GHG emissions and GHG savings.
- (2)
- Modeling: Based on the above objective analysis, the second step consists of building the model formulation to estimate the net GHG emissions of the waste-LIB recycling process under the carbon-neutral target. The objective of the proposed model is to reach a balance between GHG emissions and GHG savings. In addition, this step will propose the method to calculate the carbon emissions and carbon savings of waste-LIB recycling.
- (3)
- Numerical experiments: According to the data collected during the previous research, a typical case will be applied to verify the model put forward in the previous step. Furthermore, the results of GHG emissions and GHG savings from the LIB recycling process will be shown.
- (4)
- Sensitivity analysis: To analyze the impacts of the relevant variables on the carbon-neutral target model, a sensitivity was applied considering that the recycling technology and battery type were unchanged.
3. Modeling
3.1. Carbon-Neutral Target Model Formulation
3.2. Calculation Method of GHG Emissions from the Recycling Process
3.2.1. GHG Emissions from Transportation Process
3.2.2. GHG Emissions from the Pre-Treatment Process
3.2.3. GHG Emissions from the Cascade Utilization Process
3.2.4. GHG Emissions from the Recovery Utilization Process
3.3. Calculation Method of GHG Savings from the Recycling Process
3.3.1. GHG Savings from the Cascade Utilization Process
3.3.2. GHG Savings from the Recovery Utilization Process
4. Numerical Experiments
4.1. Basic Data
4.2. Model Results
5. Sensitivity Analysis and Discussion
5.1. Sensitivity Analysis of the Ratio of Collection Centers
5.2. Sensitivity Analysis of the Ratio of Processing Strategies
5.3. Discussion
6. Conclusions
- (1)
- When the life-cycle of LIB recycling reaches the carbon-neutral target, namely the total GHG emissions to the environment reach zero, the values of total GHG emissions and total GHG savings are equal, and the corresponding value calculated in this model was 706.45 kg CO2-eq/t. The results filled a knowledge gap by assessing the contribution of GHG savings and determined the optimal value of remanufacturing emission, therefore avoiding using virgin materials to produce new LIBs.
- (2)
- The results of sensitivity analysis indicated that net emissions fell from 9.44 kg CO2-eq/t to 7.26 kg CO2-eq/t when the ratio of battery recycling from battery after-sales service enterprises to automobile scrap plants changed from 4:6 to 6:4. Conversely, when the ratio of cascade utilization to recovery utilization changed from 2:8 to 4:6, the net emissions decreased from 103.3 kg CO2-eq/t to −86.61 kg CO2-eq/t. The results of this paper provided an effective method to improve resource utilization efficiency, so as to obtain the optimal net GHG emissions value of LIBs recycling.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Transportation Route | Transportation Distance 1 (km/One Way) | Fuel Consumption Efficiency 2 (km/L) | Loading Capacity 3/(t) | Ratio 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Battery after-sales service enterprise A to pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C | 32 | 3.5 | 5 | 50% |
Automobile scrap plant B to pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C | 62 | 3.5 | 5 | 50% |
Pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C to cascade utilization (restructuring) facility D | 165 | 3.5 | 5 | 30% |
Pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C to recovery utilization (smelting) facility F | 180 | 3.5 | 5 | 70% |
Fuel Type | Calorific Value | Emission Factor | Source of Information |
---|---|---|---|
Diesel | 43 MJ/L | 0.0739 kg CO2-eq/MJ | IPCC (2006) guidelines [17] |
Natural gas | 48 MJ/kg | 0.056 kg CO2-eq/MJ | IPCC (2006) guidelines [17] |
Grid electricity | - | 0.5839 kg CO2-eq/kWh | [19] |
Fuel Type | LIB | Source of Information |
---|---|---|
Grid electricity (kw h/t) | 35.68 | [18] |
Parameter | NMC | Source of Information |
---|---|---|
Coefficient representing emissions (kg eq-CO2/kg) | 10.9 | [18] |
Coefficient representing electricity usage (kw h/kg) | 16.8 | [18] |
The equivalence coefficient of old and new batteries | 0.04 | [21] |
Type of Metal | Metal Content [22] (kg/t) | Recovery Ratio of Metal 1 (%) | CO2 Emission from Virgin Production Process (kg CO2-eq/kg of Material) |
---|---|---|---|
Nickel | 99.78 | 90 | 7.05 2 |
Cobalt | 12.56 | 90 | 0.8 2 |
Manganese | 11.67 | 90 | 0.9 [23] |
Lithium | 14.78 | 90 | 0.03 2 |
Processes | CO2 Emissions (kg CO2-eq/t) | |
---|---|---|
Transportation | Battery after-sales service enterprise A to pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C | 11.62 |
Automobile scrap plant B to pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C | 22.52 | |
Pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C to cascade utilization (restructuring) facility D | 59.92 | |
Pre-treatment (dismantling) facility C to recovery utilization (smelting) facility F | 65.37 | |
Pre-treatment | 59.35 | |
Cascade utilization | 35.68 | |
Recovery utilization | 803.41 | |
Total | 713.25 |
Processes | CO2 Emissions (kg CO2-eq/t) |
---|---|
Cascade utilization | 651.98 |
Recovery utilization | 828.38 |
Total | 704.90 |
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Zhang, X.; He, Y.; Wang, Y.; Yan, W.; Subramanian, N. Assessing the GHG Emissions and Savings during the Recycling of NMC Lithium-Ion Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles in China. Processes 2022, 10, 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10020342
Zhang X, He Y, Wang Y, Yan W, Subramanian N. Assessing the GHG Emissions and Savings during the Recycling of NMC Lithium-Ion Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles in China. Processes. 2022; 10(2):342. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10020342
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Xumei, Yangyi He, Yan Wang, Wei Yan, and Nachiappan Subramanian. 2022. "Assessing the GHG Emissions and Savings during the Recycling of NMC Lithium-Ion Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles in China" Processes 10, no. 2: 342. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10020342