Porous Fire-Resistant Materials Made from Alkali-Activated Electric Arc Furnace Ladle Slag
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Alkali Activation
2.2.2. Volume Stability
2.2.3. Pore Size Distribution
2.2.4. Thermal Conductivity
2.2.5. Fire Resistance Test
3. Results
3.1. Evaluation of Volume Stability
3.2. Manufacturing Porous Material through Alkali Activation
3.2.1. Gas Generation
3.2.2. Pore Observations
3.2.3. Density and Compressive Strength of Porous Materials
3.3. Fire-Resistance Applications of the Porous Material from Alkali-Activated Slag
4. Conclusions
- The alkali activation system is effective at controlling the volume stability of ladle slag during application. Unlike the OPC + 20%LS specimen, which cracked in the autoclave expansion test, the AAS + 20%LS was intact; although it slightly expanded, the length expansion percentage still met the CNS 1258 criteria.
- With the amount of Al powder and binder addition fixed, the low activator modulus generated more gas bubbles. A thin layer of amorphous aluminosilicate might have been formed from the reaction of aluminum hydroxide and sodium silicate and might have covered the surface of aluminum powder and inhibited gas formation.
- Controlling the Ms could further control the pore structure and density of the porous materials. The lower Ms provided a higher proportion of alkaline, which led to faster dissolution of the binder, and the samples set quicker. At the same time, the lower Ms also accelerated the aluminum reaction. Controlling the Ms allows control of the size of the bubbles and setting time, and, hence, the pore structure and density of materials.
- Both the strength and density of the porous materials behaved in the same manner. The strength of the materials decreased when the density was lower. The strength of the porous materials might not be acceptable for construction purposes; nevertheless, the porous material might be used as a thermal barrier or in fire-resistant applications.
- The thermal conductivity of porous AAS with density 600 kg/m3 was 0.532 W/m∙K, which was almost one-third of the conductivity of the non-porous AAS (AAS) or OPC, and is comparable to 0.795 W/m∙K of rock wool. The surfaces of the AAS series plates only showed burnt marks due to the accumulation of carbon black under 800 °C flame. Alkali-activated porous materials from EAF ladle slag are good fire-resistant materials.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Huang, Y.; Xu, G.; Cheng, H.; Wang, J.; Wan, Y.; Chen, H. An overview of utilization of steel slag. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2012, 16, 791–801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Yüksel, I. A review of steel slag usage in construction industry for sustainable development environments. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2017, 19, 369–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, X.; Zhao, S.; Liu, Z.; Wang, F. Utilization of steel slag in ultra-high performance concrete with enhanced eco-friendliness. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 214, 28–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gencel, O.; Karadag, O.; Oren, O.H.; Bilird, T. Steel slag and its applications in cement and concrete technology: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 283, 122783. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oluwasola, E.A.; Hainin, M.R.; Aziz, M.M.A. Characteristics and utilization of steel slag in road construction. J. Teknol. 2014, 70, 117–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Liu, J.; Yu, B.; Wang, Q. Application of steel slag in cement treated aggregate base course. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 269, 121733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, C. Characteristics and cementitious properties of ladle slag fines from steel production. Cem. Concr. Res. 2002, 32, 459–462. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Serjun, V.Z.; Mirti, B.; Mladenovi, A. Evaluation of ladle slag as a potential material for building and civil engineering. Mater. Tehnol. 2013, 47, 543–550. [Google Scholar]
- Montenegro-Cooper, J.M.; Celemín-Matachana, M.; Cañizalc, J.; Gonzálezd, J.J. Study of the expansive behavior of ladle furnace slag and its mixture with low quality natural soils. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 203, 201–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaewmanee, K.; Krammart, P.; Sumranwanich, T.; Choktaweekarn, P.; Tangtermsirikul, S. Effect of free lime content on properties of cement-fly ash mixtures. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 38, 829–836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jiang, Y.; Ling, T.-C.; Shi, C.; Pan, S.-Y. Characteristics of steel slags and their use in cement and concrete—A review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 136, 187–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Najm, O.; El-Hassan, H.; El-Dieb, M. Ladle slag characteristics and use in mortar and concrete: A comprehensive review. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 288, 125584. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polanco, J.A.; Manso, J.M.; Setien, J.; Gonzalez, J.J. Strength and durability of concrete made with electric steelmaking slag. Materiales Construcción 2011, 108, 196–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, C.; Hu, S. Cementitious properties of ladle slag fines under autoclave curing conditions. Cem. Concr. Res. 2003, 33, 1851–1856. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adesanya, E.; Ohenoja, K.; Kinnunen, P.; Illikainen, M. Alkali activation of ladle slag from steel-making process. J. Sustain. Metall. 2017, 3, 300–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bignozzi, M.C.; Manzi, S.; Lancellotti, I.; Kamseu, E.; Barbieri, L.; Leonelli, C. Mix-design and characterization of alkali activated materials based on metakaolin and ladle slag. Appl. Clay Sci. 2013, 73, 78–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lancellotti, I.; Ponzoni, C.; Bignozzi, M.C.; Barbieri, L.; Leonelli, C. Incinerator bottom ash and ladle slag for geopolymers preparation. Waste Biomass Valorization 2014, 5, 393–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Natali Murri, A.; Rickard, W.D.A.; Bignozzi, M.C.; van Riessen, A. High temperature behaviour of ambient cured alkali-activated materials based on ladle slag. Cem. Concr. Res. 2013, 43, 51–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Duxson, P.; Fernndez-Jimnez, A.; Provis, J.L.; Lukey, G.C.; Palomo, A.; van Deventer, J.S.J. Geopolymer technology: The current state of the art. J. Mater. Sci. 2007, 42, 2917–2933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Provis, J.S.; van Deventer, J.S.J. Geopolymer: Structures, Processing, Properties and Industrial Applications; CRC Press LLC: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2009; ISBN 978-1-84569-263-6. [Google Scholar]
- Duxson, P.; Provis, J.L. Designing precursors for geopolymer cements. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2008, 91, 3864–3869. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lahoti, M.; Tan, K.H.; Yang, E.H. A critical review of geopolymer properties for structural fire-resistance applications. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 221, 514–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giancaspro, J.; Balaguru, P.N.; Lyon, R.E. Use of inorganic polymer to improve the fire response of balsa sandwich structures. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2006, 18, 390–397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lemougn, P.N.; MacKenzie, K.J.D.; Melo, U.F.C. Synthesis and thermal properties of inorganic polymers (geopolymers) for structural and refractory applications from volcanic ash. Ceram. Int. 2011, 37, 3011–3018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barbosa, V.F.F.; MacKenzie, K.J.D. Synthesis and thermal behaviour of potassium sialate geopolymers. Mater. Lett. 2003, 57, 1477–1482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ASTM International. C151/C151M-18 Standard Test Method for Autoclave Expansion of Hydraulic Cement; ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Serjun, V.Z.; Mladenovič, A.; Mirtič, B.; Meden, A.; Ščančar, J.; Milačič, R. Recycling of ladle slag in cement composites: Environmental impacts. Waste Manag. 2015, 43, 376–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, G.; Wang, Y.; Gao, Z. Use of steel slag as a granular material: Volume expansion prediction and usability criteria. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 184, 555–560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hajimohammadi, A.; Ngo, T.; Mendis, P.; Sanjayan, J. Regulating the chemical foaming reaction to control the porosity of geopolymer foams. Mater. Des. 2017, 120, 255–265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ducman, V.; Korat, L. Characterization of geopolymer fly-ash based foams obtained with the addition of Al powder or H2O2 as foaming agents. Mater. Charact. 2016, 113, 207–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, J.; Klasky, M.; Letellier, B.C. The aluminum chemistry and corrosion in alkaline solutions. J. Nucl. Mater. 2009, 384, 175–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sanjayan, J.G.; Nazari, A.; Chen, L.; Nguyen, G.H. Physical and mechanical properties of lightweight aerated geopolymer. Constr. Build. Mater. 2015, 79, 236–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miltiadisz, S.K.; Giannopoulou, I.; Tahir, M.F.M.; Hashim, M.F.A.; Panias, D. Upgrading Copper Slags to Added Value Fire Resistant Geopolymers. Waste Biomass Valorization 2020, 11, 3811–3820. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hajimohammadi, A.; Ngo, T.; Mendis, P. How does aluminium foaming agent impact the geopolymer formation mechanism? Cem. Concr. Compos. 2017, 80, 277–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Elements | Chemical Compositions | TCLP Leachate Concentrations (mg/L) | Regulatory Standards (mg/L) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Major Elements (%) | Si | 2.26 ± 0.007 | -- 1 | |
Al | 12.65 ± 0.634 | -- 1 | ||
Ca | 31.71 ± 0.927 | -- 1 | ||
Fe | 0.89 ± 0.029 | -- 1 | ||
Mg | 3.22 ± 0.034 | -- 1 | ||
Mn | 0.33 ± 0.001 | -- 1 | ||
Minor Elements (mg/kg) | Ag | -- 1 | ND 2 | 5.0 |
Ba | -- 1 | 0.99 | 100.0 | |
Cd | <4.3 | ND 2 | 1.0 | |
Cr | 120.1 ± 7.2 | ND 2 | 5.0 | |
Cu | 9.7 ± 1.5 | ND 2 | 15.0 | |
Hg | -- 1 | ND 2 | 0.2 | |
Ni | 33.5 ± 1.9 | ND 2 | 1.0 | |
Pb | 3.3 ± 0.7 | ND 2 | 5.0 | |
Se | -- 1 | ND 2 | 1.0 | |
Zn | 4.9 ± 1.3 | ND 2 | 50.0 |
Element (as Oxides, %) | OPC | BF Slag |
---|---|---|
SiO2 | 22.1 | 32.7 |
Al2O3 | 5.1 | 14.5 |
Fe2O3 | 3.1 | 0.4 |
CaO | 64.6 | 41.1 |
MgO | 1.4 | 4.7 |
SO3 | -- | 0.4 |
Loss on ignition | 1.1 | 0.6 |
Specimen | Expansion Percentage (%) | Volume Stability (<0.8%) |
---|---|---|
OPC | 0.1238 | Stable |
OPC + 20%LS | -- (cracked) | Unstable |
AAS | 0.0976 | Stable |
AAS + 20%LS | 0.1409 | Stable |
Ms | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
1.25 | 1.50 | 1.75 | 2.00 | |
T50 mL (min) | 1.6 | 2.5 | 4 | 67 |
T100 mL (min) | 3.2 | 4.5 | 6.4 | 9.8 |
Tfinal (min) | 12.5 | 13.5 | 16.5 | 24.5 |
Vfinal (mL) | 210 | 190 | 168 | 133 |
Vtheory (mL) | 260 |
Pore Size (mm) | Ms | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
1.25 | 1.50 | 1.75 | 2.00 | |
D25 | 0.30 | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0.20 |
D50 | 0.56 | 0.46 | 0.41 | 0.32 |
D75 | 1.01 | 0.71 | 0.61 | 0.47 |
Daverage | 0.71 | 0.51 | 0.45 | 0.35 |
Rock Wool | OPC | Fire-Resistant Material Density (kg/m3) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
600 | 800 | 1000 | 2000 | |||
Back-panel temperature of plates after 1 h 800 °C flame (°C) | 156 | cracked | 63 | 67 | 72 | 94 |
Thermal conductivity (W/m∙K at 600 °C) | 0.795 | 1.631 | 0.532 | 0.602 | 0.908 | 1.435 |
Surface status | cracked | melt | burnt mark | burnt mark | burnt mark | burnt mark |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Shih, P.-H.; Chang, Y.-K.; Dai, H.-A.; Chiang, L.-C. Porous Fire-Resistant Materials Made from Alkali-Activated Electric Arc Furnace Ladle Slag. Processes 2022, 10, 638. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10040638
Shih P-H, Chang Y-K, Dai H-A, Chiang L-C. Porous Fire-Resistant Materials Made from Alkali-Activated Electric Arc Furnace Ladle Slag. Processes. 2022; 10(4):638. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10040638
Chicago/Turabian StyleShih, Pai-Haung, Yi-Kuo Chang, Hao-An Dai, and Li-Choung Chiang. 2022. "Porous Fire-Resistant Materials Made from Alkali-Activated Electric Arc Furnace Ladle Slag" Processes 10, no. 4: 638. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10040638