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Article

The Influence of the Use of Carrot and Apple Pomace on Changes in the Physical Characteristics and Nutritional Quality of Oat Cookies

by
Dariusz Andrejko
,
Agata Blicharz-Kania
*,
Marta Krajewska
,
Agnieszka Sagan
,
Magda Pastusiak
and
Mikołaj Ociesa
Department of Biological Bases of Food and Feed Technologies, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Głeboka 28, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2024, 12(10), 2063; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102063
Submission received: 30 August 2024 / Revised: 12 September 2024 / Accepted: 19 September 2024 / Published: 24 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in the "Food Process Engineering" Section)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The aim of the present study was to determine the characteristics of oat cookies with the addition of apple (“A”: 5, 10%) and carrot pomace (“C”: 5, 10%). Modifying the recipe and fortifying the oat cookies with such byproducts decreased the hardness and increased the elasticity and chewiness. A colour change in the products containing fruit pomace was also observed. The use of carrot and apple residues resulted in a decrease in the value of the L* parameter, i.e., colour brightness. Moreover, for cookies containing carrot pomace, a significant increase in colour chromaticity towards red and yellow was observed. Fortified oatmeal cookies contained more polyphenols (0.67 mg/g–“CP”, control probe; 0.92 mg/g–“C10”) and fat (21.85%–“CP”; 22.55%–“A10”) but less protein (10.78%–“CP”; 10.25%–“C10”). A higher content of some minerals, i.e., P (0.334%–“CP”; 0.468%–“A10”), K (0.325%–“CP”; 0.387%–“C10”), and Ca (0.057%–“CP”; 0.073%–“C10”), was recorded in the cookies fortified with pomace. The obtained results indicate the significant impact of the addition of apple and carrot residues on the textural properties, colour parameters, and chemical composition of oat cookies. Pomace can be used to increase the content of antioxidants and microelements in this type of product.

1. Introduction

In modern times, due to wide access to various types of products, the diets of a large part of the population are based on highly processed foods containing high levels of saturated fats and sugars [1]. Unfortunately, very often, diets are poor in vegetables and fruits, which are low-calorie and provide the body with valuable nourishment [2]. Cookies are one of the most popular quick snacks [3]. Cookies are appreciated by many people. This is due to their convenient form for consumption, microbiological stability, relative cheapness, and the availability of various shapes and flavours [4]. These types of products are usually perceived as being negative dietary elements (foods with a high energy value that are poor in nutrients, containing high levels of sugar, sodium, and/or saturated fats). However, cookies with an appropriate base recipe enriched with valuable nutritional ingredients can be beneficial elements of a healthy diet for the human body [5].
Oat cookies are a good source of fibre, especially beta-glucan [6]. Oats also have a low glycemic index, which means that their consumption does not cause sudden spikes in blood sugar levels. Thanks to this, oat cookies can be a suitable snack for people with diabetes or those who want to control their glucose levels [7]. In addition, oats provide B vitamins, particularly vitamin B1 (thiamine). Oats also contain avenanthramides, which are unique phenolic compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that may support cardiovascular health [8].
Higher consumer requirements regarding the health-promoting and nutritional properties of convenience products require food producers to enrich their products with nutrients and include healthier substitutes in their composition. Fortifying oat products with fruits and vegetables could help to meet these conditions. Some byproducts of the food industry may prove to be innovative ingredients that could be added to cookie-type snacks. Food products that occur in a raw state are usually perishable and spoil quickly. Fruits and vegetables are perishable products. Hence, they are often processed, e.g., by pressing juices. The post-production residue is fruit pomace, which has the largest share in the mass of the waste (up to 40–50% of the mass of the processed raw material) [9,10]. Due to the fact that it contains many nutrients, such as saccharides, proteins, minerals, lipids, organic acids, vitamins, aldehydes, and alcohols, fruit and vegetable pomace is being studied for potential use as an ingredient in the food industry as an additive to products such as cookies or bread [11,12,13,14].
The most important substances in fruit and vegetable pomace, from the perspective of food processing, are fibre and antioxidants. Dietary fibre has many functions in the body; for example, it improves intestinal peristalsis and shortens the contact time of toxic substances and fats with the intestinal walls. Therefore, it is very important in preventing and treating a number of conditions, including obesity, atherosclerosis, heart disease, colon cancer, and diabetes [15]. Another important component of fruit pomace is antioxidants—mainly polyphenols. They play a very important role in the body, i.e., they protect cells from oxidative stress [16]. Studies have shown that antioxidants play a key role in preventing and treating many diseases, including diabetes, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, cancers, and cataracts, as well as stopping the ageing process [17].
Fruit and vegetable pomace is the main byproduct of juicing. Considering the global production of juice, apples and carrots are among the most common raw materials. The remains of these plants contain many valuable nutrients. Carrot pomace is a source of the aforementioned dietary fibre, as well as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It contains significant amounts of vitamin A (in the form of beta-carotene), vitamin K, vitamin C, and various B vitamins, including folic acid. The minerals present in carrot pomace are primarily potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as well as trace amounts of iron, zinc, and others. Carrot pomace is also rich in antioxidants, such as beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin [18]. Apple pomace is also a good source of phytochemicals and contains significant amounts of carbohydrates (mainly insoluble sugars), as well as small amounts of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. These byproducts are also characterized by a high content of natural antioxidants, especially cinnamate esters, dihydrochalcones, flavonols, quercetin glycosides, and phloridzin. Some minerals, such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and iron, have also been detected in apple pomace [19].
The aim of the present study was to examine the physical, textural, and chemical properties of oat cookies fortified with apple and carrot pomace.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Material

The research material was cookies (CP) constituted of ground oat flakes and cookies in which some of the oat flakes were replaced with carrot or apple pomace (Table 1). Apple and carrot pomace were obtained as juice byproducts produced using a slow-speed press (Sana Juicer by Omega EUJ-707). The obtained plant residues from pomace were spread on flat sheets in thin layers, and then the byproducts were convectively dried in a Pol-EkoAparatura SLW 115 Top+ device (Wodzisław Śląski, Poland) at 60 °C to a moisture content of 12 ± 1% and ground using a laboratory mill (Chemland, FW100).

2.2. Preparation and Baking of Cookies

The dry ingredients were thoroughly mixed for 3 min using a KENWOOD food processor. Eggs and melted butter were added and mixed again for 5 min. The kneaded dough was cooled at 6 °C for 120 min. The dough was formed, and round cookies (5 mm high, 50 mm in diameter) were cut out and baked in an oven (Houno, DK 8940 Ronders) for 20 min at 180 °C. The baked cookies were left to cool. Part of the research material was ground for chemical analysis. The tests of the colour parameters, textural properties, and moisture of the cookies were carried out 24 h after baking. The remaining analyses were carried out within 1 week.

2.3. Measurement of Colour Parameters

A 3Color SF80 spectrophotometer was used to carry out the colour analysis of the oat cookies. The colour parameters were measured with a D65 light source, a 10° observer, and an 8-mm measuring head aperture. The following CIE parameters were recorded: L* denoting lightness, for which the range 0–50 indicates dark colour, while the range 51–100 denotes light colour; a*—colour from green (−) to red (+); b*—colour from blue (−) to yellow (+). The test was performed with five repetitions. The total colour change ΔE between the control cookies and the pomace-supplemented cookies was calculated using the following formula:
∆ E = ( ∆ L ) 2 + ( ∆ a ) 2 + ( ∆ b ) 2
where ΔL, Δa, and Δb are indices of the difference in the colour of the surfaces of samples compared with the control cookies [20].

2.4. Determination of Textural Properties

The textural properties of the cookies were determined using a testing machine (Zwick/Roel, Z0.5) using testXpert II software. A texture profile analysis (TPA) test was employed. During the test, the product was compressed twice to 50% of its original height. The measuring crosshead displacement speed was 0.83 mm s−1. Compression was performed using a cylindrical compression punch with a diameter of 100 mm. The study determined hardness [N], elasticity [-], cohesiveness [-], and chewiness [N]. The tests were performed in five replicates.

2.5. Determination of the Chemical Composition

The test was performed in three replicates for each type of cookies. The chemical composition was determined in accordance with AACC [21] standards:
  • Moisture content determination (AACC, method 44-15.02)
Samples of the material were dried using a laboratory dryer (POL-EKO Aparatura, type SLN 15 STD, Wodzisław, Poland).
  • Protein content analysis (AACC, method 46-10.01)
The protein content was determined using a Kjeltec apparatus (TM8400, Foss, Mulgrave, Australia) and ASN 3100 software. Distillation was performed in an automatic Kjeltec Auto set by Tecator.
  • Fat content determination (AACC, method 30-10.01)
The total fat content was determined by continuous extraction with ether using a Soxtec (TM8000) apparatus and AN 310 software.
  • Ash content analysis (AACC, method 08-01.01)
The determination of the ash content consisted of complete combustion of the material and roasting the ash in a muffle furnace (LAC Ltd., M: LE 18/11, Rajhard, Czech Republik).
  • Polyphenol content determination
The total polyphenol content was determined with the Folin-Ciocalteau method, with the resulting absorbance read at 765 nm on a Helios Omega UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The calibration curve was prepared using gallic acid. The results were expressed in mg of gallic acid per 1 g of dry weight of the sample. The determinations were performed in triplicate.

2.6. Determination of Element Content

In order to determine the elemental composition, tests were performed using an X-ray dispersive fluorescence spectrometer EDX-8100P (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The tests were performed in three replicates.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

The test results were subjected to analysis using the Statistica 13 software package. The numerical values were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The significance of the observed differences was verified by Tukey’s test, with a significance level of α = 0.05.

3. Results

Figure 1 shows cookies with the addition of carrot and apple pomace. The fortified products were characterized by a different appearance, especially in terms of colour. It can also be observed that the increase in the share of plant residues from 5 to 10% influenced the change in the visual characteristics of the cookies (they were slightly darker, and their colour seemed to be more intense).

3.1. Colour Parameters

The results of the instrumental measurement of colour parameters are presented in Table 2. The highest lightness of the colour was exhibited by the control sample. The addition of the carrot and apple pomace to the recipe resulted in a darkening of the surface of the cookies. An exception was the sample in which 5% of apples were added to the dough, as the statistical analysis did not confirm significant changes in the L* parameter compared to the cookies with an unmodified recipe.
The a* parameter increased after adding the byproducts to the cookies, which indicated a change in the colour chromaticity towards red. For the products fortified with the carrot pomace, no significant changes in the tested parameter were observed after increasing the share of the byproduct. However, the increase in the content of the apple pomace from 5 to 10% caused a significant change in the chromaticity of the colour towards red. The values of the b* parameter changed significantly depending on the amount of pomace added. The greatest changes in the yellowness of the colour were observed for the sample fortified with the apple byproducts. The average values of the b* parameter changed from 27.09 (CP) to 35.84 (A10).
The total colour change (ΔE) indicates the difference between the colour of two samples: the higher the value, the greater the colour difference. The ΔE parameter was calculated relative to the colour of the control sample. The total colour change value for samples C10, A5, and A10 was higher than 5, indicating a significant colour change (the observer can clearly distinguish between two different colours).

3.2. Textural Properties

The fortification of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace caused significant changes in their textural properties, i.e., the hardness, elasticity, and chewiness of the tested material (Table 3). The highest hardness values were recorded for the CP sample. The addition of the byproducts to the cookie recipe resulted in a decrease in this parameter. In addition, the increase in the share of the carrot and apple residues resulted in a further decrease in the hardness of the cookies. However, it should be noted that a statistical analysis did not confirm significant changes in the products with the 10% apple pomace addition.
Elasticity, i.e., the degree of shape recovery after deformation, is a feature whose values increased after the introduction of the byproducts to the cookies. Significant changes were observed for the samples containing 5% apple pomace and 5 and 10% carrot pomace. The statistical analysis did not confirm a significant difference between the elasticity values for these samples.
The statistical analysis did not confirm significant changes in the cohesiveness of the tested oat cookies. This parameter describes the strength of the internal bonds that hold the product together.
Chewiness is a feature that describes the amount of force that the consumer must use during chewing to prepare a bite of food for swallowing. The studies conducted have shown that the values of this parameter did not change significantly after introducing the carrot pomace to the cookie recipe. Other relationships were observed after using the apple residues. The introduction of the 5% byproduct addition to the cookies resulted in a significant increase in chewiness. The further increase in the share of the apple pomace did not result in significant changes in this parameter.

3.3. Chemical Composition

The moisture content in the cookies increased significantly after the cookie recipe modification (Table 4). The values of this parameter also increased significantly after the increase in the share of the byproducts. The highest moisture content was recorded for the cookies with 10% carrot pomace. The highest protein content was recorded for the unmodified cookies. The amount of this nutrient did not change significantly after introducing 5% carrot pomace. However, the average protein content in the other samples was significantly lower than in the control sample. The use of the carrot and apple pomace in the cookie recipe resulted in an increase in the fat content in the finished product. An increase in the level of this macroelement by 0.7% (A10 vs. CP) was observed.
The amount of ash increased significantly in the cookies fortified with the byproducts. However, no significant changes were observed after increasing the share of the apple and carrot pomace. The carrot and apple pomace-containing oat cookies were characterized by a higher content of polyphenols. However, significant changes were observed only after the introduction of 10% of the plant residues. The highest polyphenol content (0.92 mg/g) was noted in sample C10.

3.4. Elemental Compositions

The addition of the carrot and apple pomace contributed to a significant increase in the phosphorus and potassium content (Table 5). An exception was sample A5, in which no significant changes in the K content were confirmed, compared to sample CP. The calcium content increased slightly after modifying the recipe. However, significant changes were observed only in the cookies containing 10% carrot pomace.
The fortification of the cookies with the residues from the production of carrot and apple juice resulted in a decrease in the zinc content. A statistical analysis did not confirm the significance of changes in the magnesium, iron, and manganese content in the oat cookies after the introduction of the byproducts.

4. Discussion

The addition of fruit or vegetable residues to cookies significantly changes their visual characteristics, especially their colour [22,23,24]. Interestingly, it was observed that even when the introduced fruit additive was not characterized by high values of the a* and b* parameters, the obtained cookies took on a much darker colour and higher values of the a* and b* parameters than control cookies [25,26]. Sharma and Gujral [27] reported that a higher addition of fibre in the recipe of dough and biscuits strongly promoted browning reactions, as evidenced by the low value of L*.
Textural properties of cookies are one of the most important parameters determining consumer acceptability. The strength of cookies and their resistance to chewing may be greater in the case of products fortified with pomace, e.g., from apples [24]. Cookies are usually perceived as fragile products with low hardness and chewiness. Therefore, increasing the chewiness or strength of cookies may be negatively perceived by consumers. Such a situation was observed, among others, in the study by Larrea et al. [28], in which the authors added orange pulp pomace to cookies.
In the analyzed experiment, an increase in the moisture, fat, ash, and polyphenol content was generally observed, while the protein content was reduced after introducing these byproducts to the cookies. It has been observed that the use of this type of additives usually causes negative changes in nutritional quality (protein content decreases, fat content increases) while improving the content of active ingredients, such as polyphenols or vitamins [25,29,30,31,32]. In addition, the higher content of phenolic compounds after introducing fruit or vegetable pomace into the cookie recipe results in beneficial changes in antioxidant properties [33,34].
The content of minerals in plant products may vary. In general, the iron content in both oat grain and carrot or apple pomace is at a similar level (30.5–32 mg/kg) [35,36,37], which may explain the similar content of this element in the tested cookies. Apple pomace is characterized by high phosphorus content [38]; hence, the highest share of this element was recorded in the cookies containing 10% of apple residues. However, it was observed that the cookies with the addition of carrot and apple pomace were characterized by a lower zinc content. These changes in the case of apple residues can be explained by the two-fold lower level of Zn (15 mg/kg) compared to that in oat flakes (32.06 mg/kg). It has been reported that carrot pomace contains 29.4 mg/kg of zinc [35,36,37]. The differences presented for carrot pomace and oat flakes are not large, but it should be noted that the content of mineral components in the same plant can be very different, depending on, e.g., the genotype, variety, or cultivation methods [39,40,41].

5. Conclusions

Cereal snacks, such as cookies, are a product appreciated by consumers and are at the same time durable and convenient to eat. To ensure their high nutritional quality, it is worth enriching these foods with ingredients that are a source of active compounds and minerals. Additionally, care for the environment requires research leading to the development of technologies for the further use of various types of byproducts.
The conducted experiment indicates a significant effect of adding carrot and apple pomace on the physical properties and chemical composition of oat cookies. The fortification of snacks with these residues caused an increase in all colour parameters (L*, a*, b*). These changes resulted in high values of the total colour change ΔE. Oat cookies with the addition of carrot and apple residues were also characterized by different textural properties: lower hardness and, at the same time, higher elasticity and chewiness.
The addition of carrot and apple pomace caused negative changes in nutritional quality, i.e., a decrease in the protein content and an increase in the fat share while improving the content of antioxidant components (polyphenols) and minerals (P, K, Ca).
This study has shown a beneficial effect of the 10% addition of carrot pomace on the preservation of the colour and textural and nutritional properties with an increase in the content of polyphenols and some minerals. Future studies should focus on the determination of the functional properties, texture, colour, and sensory parameters of oat cookies with the addition of both carrot and apple pomace.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.A. and A.B.-K.; methodology, D.A. and A.B.-K.; formal analysis, D.A. and A.B.-K.; investigation, A.B.-K., M.K., A.S., M.P. and M.O.; resources, A.B.-K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B.-K.; writing—review and editing, D.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Dataset available on request from the authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Processes 12 02063 g001
Figure 1. Appearance of the tested cookies. From left to right: CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% carrot pomace addition; C10—oat cookies with 10% carrot pomace addition; A5—oat cookies with 5% apple pomace addition; A10—oat cookies with 10% apple pomace addition.
Figure 1. Appearance of the tested cookies. From left to right: CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% carrot pomace addition; C10—oat cookies with 10% carrot pomace addition; A5—oat cookies with 5% apple pomace addition; A10—oat cookies with 10% apple pomace addition.
Processes 12 02063 g001
Table 1. Recipe composition of the oat cookies.
Table 1. Recipe composition of the oat cookies.
SampleComponent [g]
Oatmeal FlakesButterSugarEggsBaking PowderWheat FlourCarrot PomaceApple Pomace
CP20010060120345--
C51901006012034510-
C101801006012034520-
A519010060120345-10
A1018010060120345-20
CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% carrot pomace addition; C10—oat cookies with 10% carrot pomace addition; A5—oat cookies with 5% apple pomace addition; A10—oat cookies with 10% apple pomace addition.
Table 2. Colour parameters obtained from the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
Table 2. Colour parameters obtained from the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
SampleL*a*b*ΔE
CP70.71 ± 1.25 a3.90 ± 0.50 c27.09 ± 1.05 d
C568.23 ± 0.60 bc5.45 ± 0.13 b31.00 ± 0.12 c4.89
C1061.89 ± 0.43 d5.96 ± 0.13 b33.53 ± 0.47 b11.12
A569.89 ± 0.76 ab5.60 ± 0.31 b31.98 ± 1.48 bc5.24
A1067.59 ± 0.66 c7.28 ± 0.34 a35.84 ± 0.55 a9.89
CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% of carrot pomace; C10—oat cookies with 10% of carrot pomace; A5—oat cookies with 5% of apple pomace; A10—oat cookies with 10% of apple pomace. The presented numbers represent the arithmetic mean of the measurements (n = 5) ± SD; a different letter in the rows indicates that the presented values were significantly different (Tukey test). Results of variance analysis: L*, p < 0.0001; a*, p < 0.0001; b*, p < 0.0001.
Table 3. Textural properties of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
Table 3. Textural properties of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
SampleHardness
[N]		Elasticity
[-]		Cohesiveness
[-]		Chewiness
[N]
CP292.20 ± 16.30 a0.380 ± 0.021 b0.124 ± 0.008 a13.71 ± 0.73 b
C5254.40 ± 9.81 b0.410 ± 0.025 b0.125 ± 0.002 a13.01 ± 1.17 b
C10220.60 ± 7.86 c0.466 ± 0.027 a0.125 ± 0.001 a12.80 ± 0.74 b
A5256.00 ± 8.28 b0.496 ± 0.021 a0.128 ± 0.004 a16.27 ± 0.90 a
A10239.60 ± 16.95 bc0.502 ± 0.016 a0.122 ± 0.003 a14.63 ± 1.27 ab
CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% of carrot pomace; C10—oat cookies with 10% of carrot pomace; A5-oat cookies with 5% of apple pomace; A10-oat cookies with 10% of apple pomace. The presented numbers represent the arithmetic mean of the measurements (n = 5) ± SD; a different letter in the rows indicates that the presented values were significantly different (Tukey test). Results of variance analysis: hardness, p < 0.0001; elasticity, p < 0.0001; cohesiveness, p = 0.245; chewiness, p = 0.0001.
Table 4. Nutritional properties of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
Table 4. Nutritional properties of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
SampleMoisture
[%]		Protein
[%d. w.]		Fat
[%d. w.]		Ash
[%d. w.]		TPC
[mg/g]
CP5.25 ± 0.02 e10.78 ± 0.02 a21.85 ± 0.10 a1.49 ± 0.02 c0.67 ± 0.02 c
C56.83 ± 0.08 c10.79 ± 0.02 a22.15 ± 0.11 b1.88 ± 0.00 b0.68 ± 0.01 bc
C109.75 ± 0.03 a10.25 ± 0.02 d22.42 ± 0.12 bc1.88 ± 0.01 b0.92 ± 0.02 a
A55.75 ± 0.16 d10.67 ± 0.02 b21.85 ± 0.11 a1.95 ± 0.02 a0.66 ± 0.03 c
A108.85 ± 0.07 b10.42 ± 0.03 c22.55 ± 0.08 c2.00 ± 0.04 a0.71 ± 0.02 b
CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% of carrot pomace; C10—oat cookies with 10% of carrot pomace; A5—oat cookies with 5% of apple pomace; A10—oat cookies with 10% of apple pomace. The presented numbers represent the arithmetic mean of the measurements (n = 5) ± SD; a different letter in the rows indicates that the presented values were significantly (Tukey test). Results of variance analysis: moisture, p < 0.0001; protein, p < 0.0001; fat, p < 0.0001; ash, p < 0.0001; TPC, p < 0.0001.
Table 5. Elemental compositions [%] of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
Table 5. Elemental compositions [%] of the oat cookies with the carrot and apple pomace addition.
PKCaMgFeMnZn
CP0.334 ± 0.008 d0.325 ± 0.010 cd0.057 ± 0.002 b0.037 ± 0.001 a0.003 ± 0.000 a0.003 ± 0.000 a0.003 ± 0.000 a
C50.390 ± 0.005 c0.351 ± 0.004 b0.062 ± 0.004 b0.037 ± 0.002 a0.003 ± 0.000 a0.002 ± 0.001 a0.002 ± 0.000 b
C100.392 ± 0.006 c0.387 ± 0.002 a0.073 ± 0.003 a0.036 ± 0.002 a0.003 ± 0.000 a0.003 ± 0.001 a0.002 ± 0.001 b
A50.422 ± 0.001 b0.314 ± 0.002 d0.060 ± 0.003 b0.039 ± 0.004 a0.003 ± 0.000 a0.002 ± 0.001 a0.002 ± 0.000 b
A100.468 ± 0.008 a0.329 ± 0.002 c0.061 ± 0.005 b0.035 ± 0.001 a0.003 ± 0.000 a0.003 ± 0.001 a0.002 ± 0.001 b
CP—control probe; C5—oat cookies with 5% of carrot pomace; C10—oat cookies with 10% of carrot pomace; A5—oat cookies with 5% of apple pomace; A10—oat cookies with 10% of apple pomace. The presented numbers represent the arithmetic mean of the measurements (n = 5) ± SD; a different letter in the rows indicates that the presented values were significantly different (Tukey test). Results of variance analysis: P, p < 0.0001; K, p < 0.0001, Ca, p < 0.0001; Mg, p = 0.0718, Fe, p = 0.3309, Mn, p = 0.5121; Zn, p < 0.0001.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Andrejko, D.; Blicharz-Kania, A.; Krajewska, M.; Sagan, A.; Pastusiak, M.; Ociesa, M. The Influence of the Use of Carrot and Apple Pomace on Changes in the Physical Characteristics and Nutritional Quality of Oat Cookies. Processes 2024, 12, 2063. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102063

AMA Style

Andrejko D, Blicharz-Kania A, Krajewska M, Sagan A, Pastusiak M, Ociesa M. The Influence of the Use of Carrot and Apple Pomace on Changes in the Physical Characteristics and Nutritional Quality of Oat Cookies. Processes. 2024; 12(10):2063. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102063

Chicago/Turabian Style

Andrejko, Dariusz, Agata Blicharz-Kania, Marta Krajewska, Agnieszka Sagan, Magda Pastusiak, and Mikołaj Ociesa. 2024. "The Influence of the Use of Carrot and Apple Pomace on Changes in the Physical Characteristics and Nutritional Quality of Oat Cookies" Processes 12, no. 10: 2063. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102063

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