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Review

Application of Additive Manufacturing in the Automobile Industry: A Mini Review

by
Jian Yang
2,
Bo Li
2,3,
Jian Liu
2,
Zhantong Tu
1 and
Xin Wu
1,*
1
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
2
Guangzhou Automobile Group Co., Ltd., Automotive Engineering Institute, Guangzhou 511434, China
3
School of Intelligent Systems Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1101; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061101
Submission received: 7 May 2024 / Revised: 21 May 2024 / Accepted: 23 May 2024 / Published: 27 May 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing of Materials: Process and Applications)
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Abstract

:
The automobile industry is recognized as one of the most influential sectors shaping global economies, societies, and individual lifestyles. Therefore, fierce competition among different companies is continuously undergoing, and special attention is focused on innovations to improve competitiveness. In the past several years, additive manufacturing (AM) has emerged as an innovative technology in applications in the automobile industry with significant advantages over traditional techniques. As a result, increasing efforts have been paid to combining AM technology with the development of the automobile industry. Currently, many automobile players are optimizing their industrial layout by incorporating innovative AM techniques, and meanwhile, a lot of research progress has been achieved in order to meet the market demand. This article aims at presenting a timely review to conclude the recent advances in the application of AM techniques in the automobile industry, focusing on the available AM techniques, printable materials, and industry applications, based on which the advantages and disadvantages of each technique and material system are discussed in order to reveal the current application situation. The current research gaps and challenges are also outlined to indicate future research opportunities. Hopefully, this work can be useful to related researchers as well as game players in the industry of this field.

1. Introduction

The automobile industry, being vital to the global economy, is recognized as one of the most influential sectors shaping economies, societies, and individual lifestyles globally. It was reported that the global automotive market could be expected to reach USD 3,817,171.94 million by 2030, growing at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 3.01% [1]. This huge market thrives on the fierce competition among major players regarding the industry’s innovation and growth. The automotive market is driven by demanding to develop in several directions, including: (1) innovation of technology such as the development of electric and autonomous vehicles; (2) environmental concerns such as eco-friendly solutions for environmental problems; (3) urbanization for efficient transportation solutions; and (4) consumer preferences such as the design of the personalized, connected, and safe vehicles. To grab the market share, breakthroughs in areas such as sustainable materials, energy storage, and autonomous systems have been frequently proposed in the automobile industry [2]. On the other hand, as the core of the automobile industry, manufacturing techniques dominate the market competitiveness of a car company [3,4]. Therefore, innovation in manufacturing processes is highly expected.
Conventional manufacturing techniques used in the automobile industry, such as casting and injection molding, largely depend on subtractive processes, which are technically mature, although they have a high buy-to-fly ratio [5]. Recently, the emerging technology of additive manufacturing (AM) is reforming the automobile industry and receiving increasing attention from auto companies worldwide. The AM technique, also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, is a relatively new technology that creates 3D objects through gradually depositing material in a layer-by-layer manner based on a computer-designed model [6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. With the obvious advantages of design flexibility, reduced material waste, shortened lead time, and reduced tooling requirements, AM is recognized as a game-changer in production processes by replacing traditional manufacturing [14]. For the automobile industry, the AM technique is being unprecedentedly adopted in order to explore new design and manufacturing opportunities throughout all segments [15,16,17]. With the development in manufacturing ability and manufacturing quality, AM can not only be used in the rapid prototyping of automobile parts but also in the production of high-quality end-use components. It was predicted that the 3D printing market in the automobile sector could reach a value of USD 9.7 billion by 2030, with a CAGR of 15.94% [18]. The major merit of employing AM in the automobile industry is the ability to create lighter and more complex structures in a short amount of time, which can improve the energy efficiency, shorten the process chain, and reduce the manufacturing costs in automobile industry [19].
There have been different AM technologies developed for applications in the automobile industry, including material extrusion, vat photopolymerization, binder jetting, powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, and directed energy deposition [20,21,22,23]. Based on the different 3D printing technologies involved, various materials, including polymers, metals, ceramics, and alloys, have been applied in the AM of the automobile sector [24,25]. By integrating the advances in 3D printing techniques with material development, many applications in the automobile industry have been demonstrated. For example, Honda realized a crankshaft with a 50% weight reduction by using AM [26]. General Motors successfully consolidated eight pieces of components into one single seat bracket part though the AM technique [27]. Ford adopted the 3D printing technique to fabricate an aluminum inlet manifold, which was installed in a 1977 Hoonitruck [28]. Currently, this company has printed over 500,000 automobile components in the Detroit center. Volkswagen has been working with 3D printing techniques for more than 25 years, and the BMW group also spent EUR 15 million to build its Additive Manufacturing Campus. Obviously, more and more companies are investing into AM techniques to maintain short development cycles and to achieve lower costs, and the application trend is extensively expanding.
Over the past several years, research into the applications of additive manufacturing in the automobile industry has experienced exponential growth, as shown in Figure 1. Great achievements in the fields of advanced manufacturing technology, unique advanced printable materials, and high-performance end-use components have been made regarding the automobile industry. Although there have been a few pieces of related work summarizing the current research status of the applications of the AM technique in the automobile industry, they either lack comprehensive discussions [5,16] or only have partial contents [29,30] (e.g., only polymer-based components were discussed in Ref. [29], and only tooling manufacturing was described in Ref. [30]). In some other reviews, such as Refs. [31,32], the focus is on cost control and production management rather than the most important manufacturing parameters. In addition, an environmental assessment of the AM technique in the automotive industry was also conducted by comparing it to the conventional method; however, it paid less attention to the material system and to the technique itself [33]. The benefits and potential of the AM technique in driving the automobile industry to a green and electric transition were also evaluated [34]. For this article, we aim to present a timely and comprehensive review to conclude the recent advances in this field, focusing on the AM techniques, printable materials, and applications in the automobile industry. Hopefully, this work can be useful to academic researchers as well as game players in the industry of this field.

2. Additive Manufacturing Techniques Used in the Automobile Industry

According to the standard terminology of ASTM ISO/ASTM52900-15 [36], AM used in the automobile industry can be categorized into seven types: (1) material extrusion; (2) vat photopolymerization; (3) binder jetting; (4) material jetting; (5) powder bed fusion; (6) sheet lamination; and (7) directed energy deposition. Table 1 summarizes the different types of AM processes and highlights the advantages and disadvantages for their use in the automobile industry.

2.1. Material Extrusion

As a widely used printing process based on thermoplastic polymer materials, material extrusion realizes the fabrication of polymer filaments by continuously feeding materials into the printing area through extruding nozzles where the materials are heated and then deposited onto the substrate layer by layer [38,39]. The most widely used material extrusion technique is fused deposition modeling (FDM). As shown in Figure 2, the thermoplastic filament is driven by a stepper motor towards the extrusion head, where a high temperature melts and fuses the filament and the material is extruded out of the nozzle to make a pre-defined section layer. Additional layers are then deposited on top of the previous ones to make the final 3D products. Owing to the merits of the abundance of available materials, low maintenance costs, good production efficiency, easy material changes, low operation temperatures, etc., FDM is widely applied in fabricating automobile components.
In 2010, Ryan et al. [41] designed and manufactured an intake system for a 600 cc Formula Society of Automotive Engineers engine. In this work, FDM was used to create an intake system, which consisted of a plenum, plenum elbow, and cylinder runners, as shown in Figure 3. The use of FDM allowed for geometric design freedom, and it could create a unique intake geometry featuring a tapered plenum and tapered runners, generating reduced weight (22% decrease) for the system and enhanced performance. Then, in 2020, Sakthivel et al. [42] optimized the process parameters of FDM used for manufacturing automotive components using the Grey-based Taguchi and TOPSIS methods. The results could advance the FDM manufacturing of automotive parts with extreme quality and less wastage. Other automobile components, such as bumpers and pillar trims, have also been demonstrated using the FDM process [43,44]. Recently, the usage of FDM in manufacturing unmanned aerial vehicles has drawn great attention [45]. FDM has emerged as a robust technology for providing good opportunities for fabricating compact, strong, and lightweight functional parts.
For the usage of the FDM process in the automobile industry, different thermoplastic polymer materials, including polylactic acid, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, polyether ether ketone, thermoplastic polyurethane, high-impact polystyrene, and polyamides, can be used [46]. However, multifunctional materials with low costs and good printability are still in demand for the wide-scale application of this process. By carefully manipulating the process parameters, such as the nozzle diameter, extrusion and bed temperature, print speed, build orientation, layer thickness, raster width and angle, infill density, and pattern, optimized performance can be achieved for the end-use components. For detailed information regarding how the process parameters can influence the properties of the parts, please refer to Ref. [47].

2.2. Vat Photopolymerization

Vat photopolymerization is a liquid-based 3D printing process based on photopolymerization, which selectively cures a photosensitive resin using a source like UV light in a layer-by-layer manner. Based on the difference in the light source and printing setup, vat photopolymerization can be classified into stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), continuous liquid interface production (CLIP), and daylight polymer printing (DPP) [48,49]. Taking the SLA process as an example, a focused laser beam is guided by galvanometers to scan onto the liquid resin according to a predefined trace, which then cures the resin into the designed morphology, as shown in Figure 4. With the advantages of high accuracy, good resolution, and full automation, the vat photopolymerization technique is also popular in applications in the automobile industry. However, we have to note that the material options for vat photopolymerization are limited, and the parts printed by this technique are relatively brittle. In addition, the toxic features of the uncured resin require special attention during the printing process [50].
More and more car manufactures are making use of SLA 3D printing for rapid prototyping and for producing final parts as well. Car companies such as BMW, Lamborghini, and Jaguar Land Rover have all been involved in this new trend. For example, Great Wall Motors printed a front-left door panel and speaker mesh using a ProtoFab SLA600 machine with Formula W Resin [52]. Figure 5 shows the as-printed complex grill structure. The DLP technique, based on a digital micromirror device that is used to project the full pixel-patterned light images of each layer at once, can provide a fast printing speed with a high resolution. Therefore, the DLP process is more suitable for printing large automobile parts. For example, Porsche used the DLP process to produce a new type of bucket seat. McLaren applied DLP to produce titanium wheels with incredible strength, higher than traditionally manufactured parts. Bugatti used DLP to manufacture its brake calipers [53]. An industrial DLP printer can generate parts without the demand of machine tools, making it able to greatly reduce the development time and production costs. For example, by using the DLP 3D printing technique, Volkswagen has reduced the cost of a set of wheel protection fixtures from thousands of EUR to almost EUR 20. The CLIP technology, as one type of DLP process, can deliver a much higher production speed combined with multiple programmable resins to form functional end-use parts in the automobile industry, such as personalized side scuttles, brake brackets, air duct splits, and fuel tank caps [54].

2.3. Material Jetting

In material jetting (MJ), liquid materials are delivered into an extruder, from which the liquid is sprayed to form numerous tiny droplets. After being exposed to light, the droplets are solidified [55,56,57], as shown in Figure 6. Several techniques, including drop-on-demand, PolyJet, and nanoparticle jetting, belong to the material jetting technique. Material jetting has the advantages of high accuracy and a smooth surface finish. Since it allows for different materials to be jetted within the same object, material jetting is often used for scenarios with the requirements of multilaterals or gradient functional materials. Lots of applications in the automobile industry have also been demonstrated using this technique.
Maurya et al. [58] compared the MJ technique with FDM in terms of form error, surface roughness, dimensional accuracy, tolerance grade, and cost by taking the engine connecting rod of a car as a research object. They concluded that the MJ-printed parts presented a lower average percentage error in circular dimensions as well as a lower form error and lower surface roughness, while they had a higher cost when compared to the FDM technique. Wang et al. [59,60] produced an automobile component with a height of 70 mm by using the PolyJet technique and used a finite element model to simulate this manufacturing process. Figure 7 depicts a prototype of additive-manufactured jounce bumpers, for which a rubber-like material, TangoGray FLX950, was used for the tendon layers, and ABS was used for the stuffer layers. By making use of the advantages of the 3D printing technique, a negative-Poisson-ratio (NPR) structure was realized in the manufacturing of a jounce bumper in automotive suspension, which can shrink laterally under compressive force, enhancing the stiffness of the entire structure. Therefore, the ability to absorb the impact energy and the noise, vibration, and harshness performance were greatly improved.

2.4. Binder Jetting

For the binder jetting process, a powder is first sprayed onto the build table by a roller. After that, a liquid binder is injected from the print head and selectively deposited onto the powder sites to bind the powder together [61,62]. Therefore, the difference between the material jetting process is that the binder jetting process injects an auxiliary adhesive binder rather than the as-printed host material. After the manufacturing of the green part, a sintering process in a furnace is then used to burn out the binder material. This two-step process is illustrated in Figure 8. Compared with other metal AM processes such as DED, the binder jetting process has a wider material selection, and does not rely on heating energy for printing green parts, which can minimize the detrimental residual stress in the objects.
Markus et al. [64] discussed the process chains of using powder-bed-based metal AM in the automobile industry and compared the binder jetting process with selective laser melting for use in automotive production. The individual process procedures and the related properties were discussed based on evaluation criteria to support the determination of the optimized process chain in the automobile industry. Amy et al. [65] developed a binder jetting process to rapidly manufacture moderately sized injection molding tools for automotive lamps. Metal powders were used as the source material, and the influence of the finishing process on the performance of the printed mold was discussed. Cooperating with ExOne, Ford developed a binder jetting technology for printing aluminum 6061 automobile components. The printed parts can achieve a density of 99% and great mechanical properties as well [66]. Solgang et al. [67] discussed the influence of different sintering agents for the binder jetting of aluminum alloy in applications in automobile components. Figure 9 shows ICC radar mounting brackets manufactured by a binder jetting process.

2.5. Powder Bed Fusion

Powder bed fusion (PBF), which includes direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser melting (SLM), selective laser sintering (SLS), and electron beam melting (EBM), relies on a high-energy source (laser source or electron beam source) to directly and selectively sinter or melt powder materials layer by layer to generate a solid part [68,69]. Meanwhile, the unused feedstock can be reused, making it a cost-effective technique, as shown in Figure 10. For the laser-based PBF process, an inert atmosphere such as argon or helium is adopted to prevent material oxidation., while for the electron-beam-based PBF process, a vacuum atmosphere is generally used. Owing to the merits of high accuracy, high resolution, fully dense parts, and high strength, the PBF printing process has more applications in the automobile industry.
Morteza et al. [71] revealed the applications of the PBF technique in tool and die making in the automotive industry. AISI H 13 tool steel was chosen as the research object. They focused on the method around the eradication of cracks, building the process–structure–property relationship, understanding the residual stresses, and developing functionally graded materials, which could provide important information for the application of the PBF technique in the automobile industry. Jorge et al. [72] tested the mechanical and electrical insulation of specimens manufactured by the SLS and HP multi jet fusion processes in three building orientations and compared the results to those of specimens generated by injection molding. The applications of the PBF techniques in a high-voltage electric vehicle were evaluated. Figure 11 shows some products manufactured by the PBF technique in the automobile industry [73]. It was claimed that PBF could help to reduce 80% of the manufacturing time for some industries when compared to traditional manufacturing techniques.

2.6. Sheet Lamination

Sheet lamination, also known as laminated object manufacturing (LOM), uses thin foil as the raw material. The sheets of materials, including adhesive-coated paper, plastic, and metal laminates, are selectively cut into the desired shape using a knife or laser energy and then glued together by a compression roller layer by layer [74,75,76], as shown in Figure 12a. LOM can produce objects of different sizes, shapes, and colors in a relatively cheap and fast way.
Because the main printed material is paper and plastic, LOM has been less demonstrated in applications in the automobile industry, except for in some conceptual models [77], as shown in Figure 12b. A recent development in high-performance ABS/TPU multimaterials and ceramic-based materials has brought more potential for the application of the LOM process in the automobile industry [78,79]. For example, the ABS/TPU multimaterials present a high flexural strength along with large peak and break elongation, which endow the technology with potential applications in car bumpers [78]. Ceramic materials, which can provide automobile systems with improved driving performance, exhaust gas purification, and fuel efficiency, have been demonstrated with great potential in the applications of knock sensors, exhaust gas catalysts, and coating parts for automotive engines [80].
Processes 12 01101 g012
Figure 12. (a) Schematic illustration of LOM process [81] and (b) a printed automobile model [77].
Figure 12. (a) Schematic illustration of LOM process [81] and (b) a printed automobile model [77].
Processes 12 01101 g012

2.7. Directed Energy Deposition

Directed energy deposition (DED) is a powder-based AM technique typically used to directly melt metal particles using a laser system and deposit them onto a metal substrate layer by layer [82,83,84]. Many AM processes, including laser-engineered net shaping, laser metal deposition, direct metal deposition, and laser deposition welding, can be classified into the category of DED. Similar to the PBF process, a spherical powder is used as the material source. However, for the PBF process, the powder is sprayed onto the platform before the printing, which is different from the DED process, in which the metal powders are injected into the molten pool through nozzles simultaneously with the emission of laser energy. This feature grants the DED process the ability to repair worn components [85] and to manufacture functionally graded materials [86]. Figure 13 gives a schematic diagram of the DED process. Many applications of the DED process in the automobile industry have been demonstrated because of its unique features.
Jennifer et al. [88] used the DED technique to repair automotive dies and evaluated the performance of the repaired dies regarding life cycle analyses and environmental impacts. They concluded that the DED repair process could significantly reduce the damage from environmental impacts when compared to traditional welding repair. Later on, Nitul et al. [89] demonstrated that by using a DED technique, the repair of crankshafts and pistons, gears and pinions, engine turbocharger blades, drive axles of dumpers, and hydraulic distribution valves could be easily realized. The ability to manufacture functional gradient materials also provides the technology with great potential for applications in the automobile industry [90]. Moreover, the DED process can also be used in surface treatment, which is important in some core automobile parts. For example, Diana et al. [91] employed the DED technique to clad the surface of gray cast iron brake discs with Inconel 718 alloy, as shown in Figure 14. After the cladding process, the mechanical properties, hardness, anti-friction performance, and corrosion resistance of the brake discs were demonstrated with great improvement. The microstructure analysis shown in Figure 15 also revealed that a uniform interface was formed between the substrate and the deposited material, and a crack- and pore-free surface could be achieved by optimizing the overlap ratio (40% as the optimal value). In addition, the diffusion of the main chemical elements was negligible.
Table 2 summaries the AM techniques used in different automobile companies, from which it can be seen that all the major automobile companies are integrating AM into their production line to increase their innovation and competitiveness.

3. Printable Materials for Automobile AM Applications

To achieve the application potential of AM technology in the automobile industry, the core aspect is the development of diverse printable materials. From thermoplastics and metals to advanced composites, the types of materials applicable in the AM of automobile parts continue to expand [92]. The following section summarizes some of the key materials utilized in the applications of additively manufactured automobile components.

3.1. Polymer Additive Manufacturing

Polymers are generally recognized as the primary and most commonly used materials for additive manufacturing. Polymers can address some limitations such as the mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties associated with 3D printing in automotive applications [93]. The versatile nature of polymer materials makes them popular in the automobile industry, and the functionalization potential to generate polymer composites further improves the mechanical performance and biodegradability during the automobile packaging and operation [94]. Figure 16 shows some of the automobile components manufactured with polymer/polymer composites [95].
Among the AM techniques described above, the SLA, SLS, FDM, LOM, and inkjet printing technologies are most often used for creating polymer composite components in automobile applications [96]. Based on the methods being used, different polymer materials are adopted in the AM process. For example, commonly used thermoplastic polymer materials applied in the AM process include acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) [97], polylactic acid (PLA) [98], polyvinylalcohol (PVA) [99], thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) [100], nylon, polyamides (PIs) [101], and polycarbonates (PCs) [102], etc. Figure 17 lists the different polymer composites used in AM applications in the automobile industry [29].
Based on the various polymer materials and the associated AM techniques, some application examples in the automobile industry were realized, such as the producing of three-dimensional bellows using the inkjet process [103], the SLS manufacturing of three-dimensional complex functional ducting [16], the manufacturing of a full-colored visual prototype for the center console of an automobile [16], and the printing of a functional alternator bracket using SLS nylon [16].
For most polymeric materials, they are non-degradable by nature, which would burden the environment and pose severe threats to life on Earth. Therefore, recycling polymer waste by techniques such as chemical recycling and mechanical recycling and the production of biodegradable 3D-printable polymer materials such as PLA and PVA are receiving increasing attention. For more information regarding the economic and environmental concerns of different polymeric materials, please refer to Refs. [104,105].

3.2. Metal Additive Manufacturing

The metal AM process has gained significant attention across various industries, including the automobile industry, owing to its numerous advantages like the outstanding mechanical strength, great thermal conductivity, and heat resistance of the printed parts [106,107,108,109]. The most often used metal materials in AM processing include steels, titanium alloys, aluminum alloys, nickel-based alloys, and cobalt-based alloys [110]. Based on the difference in the feedstock and thermal source, common metal AM processes include material extrusion, VAT photopolymerization, lamination, material/binder jetting, powder bed fusion, and directed energy deposition, among which the powder bed fusion and directed energy deposition processes dominate the automobile market [30]. The advances in metal AM have enabled the ability to produce automobile components with more flexible, customized, and topologically optimized designs (Figure 18 shows the topology optimization workflow of a mounting bracket for an intelligent cruise control radar sensor); lightweight, stronger, and safer products; and reduced lead times and costs [111,112]. As a result, many automobile companies are engaging in metal AM for their products.
For example, Formula Student Germany 2012 applied the EOS DMLS technique to fabricate a lightweight upright, which could reduce the mass by 35% when compared to traditional cast-manufactured parts [113]. BMW group manufactured a window guide rail in their i8 Roadster by employing the multi jet fusion metal printing process. One hundred rails can be finished in 24 h. Another component, a fixture for a soft-top attachment, was also printed, which could achieve a weight reduction of 44% and a stiffness increase of 10 times. Innovations in engine manufacturing have also been achieved by using the PBF metal AM process [114,115,116]. In 2018, Bugatti produced a Ti6Al4V brake caliper for future car models using the SLM printing method. Being one of the largest calipers in the world, the as-manufactured caliper could reach a tensile strength of 1225 MPa with a weight reduction of 40% [117]. Combined with topology optimization, Bugatti Chiron also manufactured an optimized bracket with integrated water cooling circuits [117]. Audi is also collaborating with SLM Solution to manufacture customized products and spare parts, such as a water adapter for the Audi W 12 engine [113]. Figure 19 depicts some of the automobile components manufactured by the metal AM process, clearly indicating their high quality and complexity.

3.3. Ceramic Additive Manufacturing

Ceramic materials present special features such as high hardness, heat resistance, and wear and corrosion resistance, which make them suitable for high-temperature applications and use in electrically insulating components in the automobile industry [118,119]. Ceramic composites, combining a ceramic matrix with different additives [120], can endow the materials with more outstanding physical, chemical, and mechanical properties for use in automobile parts. However, the intrinsic nature of their brittleness and high melting point limits the applicable AM processes for printing ceramics-based products. Currently, ceramics are incorporated into AM techniques through different forms of feedstocks, like slurry-based, powder-based, and bulk-solid-based feedstocks [121,122]. For the slurry-based process, a liquid solution is used, and fine ceramic particles are dispersed. For the powder-based process, solid loose ceramic particles are mixed with additives as the feedstock. For the solid-based process, it is inspired by the LOM process, and tape-cast alumina, zirconia green sheets, silicon carbide, and silicon–silicon carbide composites are used as the feedstock.
For the usage of ceramics in 3D printing in the automobile industry, Steinbach AG claimed that they used lithography-based ceramic manufacturing (LCM) to produce a variety of heat-resistance components based on ceramic materials. Components in engine compartments manufactured with these materials, such as valves and fuel pumps, exhibit a lower noise level, a higher efficiency, and less abrasion [123]. They also revealed other 3D-printed ceramics in automobile applications, including slide rings, storage, sealings, constituents of vent valves, components for fuel pumps, constituents of exhaust gas flaps, plain bearings, components for rolling bearings, shafts, supporting bodies in the crankcase, components for water pumps, constituents for valves, components for analyses in research laboratories, and sensors. Figure 20 shows some 3D-printed ceramic automobile components.
Table 3 presents a summary of the various printable materials used in AM in the automobile industry, with an emphasis on their advantages and disadvantages. It can be seen that each material has its own merits for a specific application regarding the required performance and working conditions.

4. Challenges and the Future Opportunities

AM technologies have the potential to revolutionize design capabilities and manufacturing processes in the automobile industry. There are a number of advantages for AM process due to their inherent nature. In addition, as an on-demand manufacturing technique, AM technology eliminates the use of excess material, and therefore unnecessary waste, as well as the need for long transport routes and storage areas, largely reducing environmental impacts. Therefore, AM is recognized as a promising sustainable manufacturing method [124]. However, the acceptance of AM as the mainstream production technology to replace traditional manufacturing techniques is still debatable owing to the obvious drawbacks and challenges. The first challenge is the material limitations. Even though each AM technique has its own material system and there has been significant progress in developing printable materials, many AM applications are still restricted by the available materials. For the automobile industry, specific properties such as temperature-controlled behavior with reduced costs are often expected [125,126], and the current material database can hardly meet this requirement. Therefore, the development of high-quality printable materials with more functions would provide many opportunities in AM in the automobile industry.
Second, the control of product quality. Although the AM process can sometimes achieve good product quality, such as products with a high mechanical strength and good surface finish, defects such as voids, porosity, and cracks commonly exist for additively manufactured products [127,128], which largely weakens their application properties. For the AM process involving a heat history, the uneven temperature field would induce residual stress and distortion [129], which are harmful in actual automobile applications. In addition, as a layer-by-layer process, AM products generally face the problem of anisotropy and heterogeneity, both in terms of the microstructure and macro performance [130]. Anyway, how to control the manufacturing process in order to obtain products with the desired quality is a big challenge for AM applications in the automobile industry, while on the other hand, it provides vast opportunities.
Third, the requirement of excessive post-processing. As-printed products generally need time-consuming and costly post-processing, such as smoothing surfaces, removing support structures, finishing details, releasing residual stress by heat treatment, etc., to meet the application standards [131,132]. Even for some scenarios, the post processing procedure is impossible to conduct, which restricts the application of the AM process. Developing a technology that can reduce the amount of post-processing required is highly expected.
Fourth, improvement of the product volume. As the products are built layer by layer, it takes a long time to fabricate any object, which ultimately leads to a low product volume [133]. For traditional methods, the mature product line allows thousands of components to be fabricated in a short time, while for the AM process, the merit in generating customized products does not apply to a large volume of production. Developing ways to increase the manufacturing speed and expand the production efficiency by lowering the machine price would be helpful; still, more research efforts are expected to improve the product volume.
Lastly, the lack of standards. For the application of AM in the automobile industry, standardized processes and materials are required [134]. The lack of universal standards could impede the interoperability between different 3D printers and software, making it difficult to achieve the same performance even under identical process parameters. Therefore, a large amount of effort would be wasted in repeatedly validate the quality of the products. Universally accepted standards in AM techniques, materials, 3D printers, and software are extremely significant for the applications of AM techniques in the automobile industry.
Undoubtedly, there are some other challenges that need to be overcome for AM in the automobile industry. With the rapid development in technology and the increased attention paid to the environmental crisis, other research opportunities, including multimaterial printing, large-scale AM, sustainability and recycling in AM, automation, and AI integration, could also receive great interest in the following years [34,135].

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, the automotive market is in the midst of a transformative journey. Additive manufacturing could bring in new blood to the automobile space owing to its abilities in design flexibility, rapid prototyping, waste reduction, and lightweight production, which give it the ability to act as a game-changer in the automobile industry. Therefore, automakers worldwide are increasingly investing in AM techniques and making use of this technology in their design interactions, tooling, and end-use component production.
This work reviewed the recent advances in the application of AM technology in the automobile industry, focusing on the most important aspects, i.e., the applicable AM techniques and the printable materials. With the advantages and disadvantages being compared, we hope that more progress in developing new AM techniques and associated materials will be stimulated. The current challenges, including the material limitations, the inferior product quality, excessive post-processing requirements, small product volumes, and the lack of standards, are outlined for extensively incorporating AM into automobile production lines.
The automobile industry is shifting towards sustainable and green solutions by advancing battery systems and the associated electrical cars [136]. Therefore, more opportunities could be exposed for AM researchers regarding this new trend. For instance, AM technology was used to generate heat-resistant battery fixtures that aid in heat dissipation and battery cooling [137]. AM is also regarded as a promising solution for the manufacturing of solid-state lithium batteries [138]. With ongoing R&D, AM techniques are poised to complement traditional automobile manufacturing in the coming future.

Funding

This research was funded by the Joint Fund of Ministry of Education for Equipment Pre-research (No. 8091B032206), and the GuangDong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (No. 2021A1515111067, No. 2023A1515010735). The authors are grateful for the valuable comments from anonymous referees.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

Authors Jian Yang, Bo Li and Jian Liu were employed by the company Guangzhou Automobile Group Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Current applications of AM in automobile industry and future prospects [35].
Figure 1. Current applications of AM in automobile industry and future prospects [35].
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the FDM printing process [40].
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the FDM printing process [40].
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Figure 3. Assembly of a 3D-printed intake manifold [41].
Figure 3. Assembly of a 3D-printed intake manifold [41].
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Figure 4. Schematic illustration of the traditional SLA process [51].
Figure 4. Schematic illustration of the traditional SLA process [51].
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Figure 5. A complex grill structure manufactured by the SLA technique [52].
Figure 5. A complex grill structure manufactured by the SLA technique [52].
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Figure 6. Schematic of the material jetting process [57].
Figure 6. Schematic of the material jetting process [57].
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Figure 7. Additive-manufactured NPR jounce bumper prototypes [59]. (a) NPR jounce bumper prototype 2; (b) NPR jounce bumper prototype 3.
Figure 7. Additive-manufactured NPR jounce bumper prototypes [59]. (a) NPR jounce bumper prototype 2; (b) NPR jounce bumper prototype 3.
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Figure 8. Two-step process of binder jetting [63].
Figure 8. Two-step process of binder jetting [63].
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Figure 9. Binder-jetting-printed ICC radar mounting brackets [19].
Figure 9. Binder-jetting-printed ICC radar mounting brackets [19].
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Figure 10. Schematic illustration of the laser-based PBF process [70].
Figure 10. Schematic illustration of the laser-based PBF process [70].
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Figure 11. Processing map for the application of PBF technique in automobile industry [73].
Figure 11. Processing map for the application of PBF technique in automobile industry [73].
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Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the DED process [87].
Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the DED process [87].
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Figure 14. (a) Coating the brake discs with IN718 using DED process; (b) final product; (c) functionally tested on a car service unit [91].
Figure 14. (a) Coating the brake discs with IN718 using DED process; (b) final product; (c) functionally tested on a car service unit [91].
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Figure 15. Microstructure features of cross-section zones through laser deposition layers. (a–c) SEM images of transition zone between two layers of IN718 laser deposition and substrate. (d) Elemental analysis along the interface of laser cladding layer [91].
Figure 15. Microstructure features of cross-section zones through laser deposition layers. (a–c) SEM images of transition zone between two layers of IN718 laser deposition and substrate. (d) Elemental analysis along the interface of laser cladding layer [91].
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Figure 16. Some of the automobile components manufactured with polymer/polymer composites [95].
Figure 16. Some of the automobile components manufactured with polymer/polymer composites [95].
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Figure 17. Description of the different polymer composites used in the AM of automobile industry [29].
Figure 17. Description of the different polymer composites used in the AM of automobile industry [29].
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Figure 18. Topology optimization workflow of a mounting bracket [19].
Figure 18. Topology optimization workflow of a mounting bracket [19].
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Figure 19. Some of the automobile components manufactured by metal AM process. (a) Steering knuckle; (b) brake caliper; (c) topology-optimized bracket; (d) aluminum lightweight structure [108].
Figure 19. Some of the automobile components manufactured by metal AM process. (a) Steering knuckle; (b) brake caliper; (c) topology-optimized bracket; (d) aluminum lightweight structure [108].
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Figure 20. Three-dimensionally printed ceramic automobile components [123].
Figure 20. Three-dimensionally printed ceramic automobile components [123].
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Table 1. Different types of AM processes for use in automobile industry [37].
Table 1. Different types of AM processes for use in automobile industry [37].
CategoriesTechnologiesPower SourceMaterialsAdvantagesDisadvantages
Material extrusionFused deposition modelingThermal energyThermoplastics
(ABS, PLA, PC, nylon)		Inexpensive, multimaterial, easy to operate Poor resolution and surface finish, poor bonding
Vat photopolymerizationStereolithography, digital light processing, continuous liquid interface production, daylight polymer printingUltraviolet lightPhotosensitive resin, ceramicsHigh accuracy, good resolution, full automationOvercuring lengthy post-processing, single composition, high cost of materials
Binder jettingBinder jettingBinder/thermal energyPolymer/ceramic/metal powderWide material selection, relatively fast printingLengthy postprocessing, porosities within parts
Material jettingDrop on demand, PolyJet, nanoparticle jettingThermal energyPhotopolymer resins, metals, ceramicsHigh accuracy, smooth surface finish, multimaterialLow mechanical strength
Powder bed fusionDirect metal laser sintering, electron beam melting, selective laser melting, selective laser sinteringLaser, electron beamPolymer/ceramic/metal powderHigh accuracy, high resolution, fully dense parts, high strengthPowder recycling, support structures, single material, residual stress
Sheet laminationLaminated object manufacturingLaserPlastic/metal/ceramic foilHigh surface finishMaterial limitation
Directed energy depositionLaser-engineered net shaping, direct metal deposition, laser metal deposition, laser cladding, laser consolidationLaserMetal/ceramic/powderRepair of worn components, multimaterial (functionally graded materials)Low accuracy, low surface finish, residual stress, requires postmachining
Table 2. The AM techniques used in different automobile companies [5].
Table 2. The AM techniques used in different automobile companies [5].
CompanyAM Processes
BMWFused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (Davies, 2023)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) (Ricoh 3D, 2020)
Multi Jet Fusion (BMW Group, 2020)
Laser Beam Melting (BMW Group, 2020)
AudiSelective Laser Melting (SLM) (Petch, 2018)
Stereolithography (SLA) (Krassenstein, 2015)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (Krassenstein, 2015)
Multi Jet Fusion (MJF) (Krassenstein, 2015)
ToyotaSelective Laser Sintering (SLS) (SAE International, 2021)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (SAE International, 2021)
Stereolithography (SLA) (SAE International, 2021)
Multi Jet Modeling (MJM) (SAE International, 2021)
Digital Light Processing (DLP) (SAE International, 2021)
HondaLiquid Deposition Modeling (LDM) (Everett, 2021)
FordSelective Laser Sintering (SLS) (Ford Motor Company, n.d.)
Stereolithography (SLA) (Ford Motor Company, n.d.)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (Cune, 2018)
Metal Binder Jet Printing (Molitch-Hou, 2021)
VolvoSelective Laser Sintering (SLS) (Volvo Group, 2019)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (Pearson, 2020)
Rolls-RoyceElectron Beam Melting (EBM) (Molitch-Hou, 2015)
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) (Tyrrell, 2022)
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) (Kingsbury, 2019)
ChevroletSelective Laser Sintering (SLS) (General Motors, 2020)
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) (General Motors, 2020)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (General Motors, 2020)
NissanSelective Laser Sintering (SLS) (General Motors, 2020)
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) (General Motors, 2020)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (General Motors, 2020)
TeslaSand Binder Jetting (Madeleine P., 2023)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (3D printing.com, 2020)
Mercedes-BenzSelective Laser Melting (SLM)(Additive News, 2017; Moore, 2020)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)(Moore, 2020)
Stereolithography (SLA)(Moore, 2020)
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) (Moore, 2020)
VolkswagenBinder Jetting (Volkswagen AG, 2021)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) (Jackson, 2017)
Table 3. Summary of the materials used in AM in the automobile industry [92].
Table 3. Summary of the materials used in AM in the automobile industry [92].
MaterialsAutomobile ApplicationAdvantagesDisadvantages
Polymers
-
Rapid tooling and fixture production
-
Functional prototypes and testing parts
-
Customized automotive
-
Parts
-
Composite materials with polymers
-
Low cost and ease of processing
-
Light weight, suitable for interior components
-
Excellent design flexibility and complexity
-
Good impact resistance and vibration damping
-
Limited mechanical strength and load-bearing capacity
-
Limited thermal stability and chemical resistance
-
Limited dimensional accuracy and potential for warping or distortion during printing
-
Limited recyclability and environmental concerns
Metals
-
Engine parts and components
-
Transmission components and gears
-
Suspension systems and chassis components
-
Exhaust systems and engine components
-
Braking components and systems
-
High strength-to-weight ratio
-
Excellent mechanical properties
-
High thermal conductivity
-
Good wear resistance and fatigue resistance
-
High resistance to extreme temperatures and harsh environments
-
High material and processing costs
-
Limited design complexity and intricate features
-
Limited availability of AM-grade materials for high-performance applications
-
Potential for microstructural defects in printed parts
-
Post-processing may be required to achieve desired mechanical properties
Ceramics
-
High-performance brake components
-
Engine components and exhaust systems
-
Bearings and wear-resistant components
-
Spark plugs and ignition systems
-
Electrical insulators and components
-
Sensors and electronic components
-
High-temperature resistance and
thermal stability
-
Excellent mechanical properties
-
Low density, light weight
-
Good chemical inertness and resistance to corrosion
-
Limited design complexity
-
High processing temperatures required for sintering
-
Cost and availability of specialized ceramic powders
-
Challenging to achieve dense and void-free prints due to high processing temperatures
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Yang, J.; Li, B.; Liu, J.; Tu, Z.; Wu, X. Application of Additive Manufacturing in the Automobile Industry: A Mini Review. Processes 2024, 12, 1101. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061101

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Yang J, Li B, Liu J, Tu Z, Wu X. Application of Additive Manufacturing in the Automobile Industry: A Mini Review. Processes. 2024; 12(6):1101. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061101

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Yang, Jian, Bo Li, Jian Liu, Zhantong Tu, and Xin Wu. 2024. "Application of Additive Manufacturing in the Automobile Industry: A Mini Review" Processes 12, no. 6: 1101. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061101

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