1. Introduction
Energy is paramount to the survival and growth of any economy. Advanced economics does not rely on a single source of energy but rather explores other important feedstock from efficient energy production. The leading demand of the 21st century is to compete with the increasing requirements of energy [
1]. Pakistan is the 5th most populous country globally, and its energy requirements and population are increasing day by day [
2]. The population of Pakistan in 2010 was 179,424,641, which increased to 220,892,340 in 2020 and is estimated to hit 242.2 million in 2025, as shown in
Figure 1 [
3]. Pakistan is a developing nation, it requires continuous inclusion of energy in the mainstream channel to meet the demand of the ever-increasing population, and a lack of system up-gradation results in a shortage of energy in the country [
4]. Currently, conventional fuels, i.e., oil, natural gas, and coal, make up 63% of the total source of energy in Pakistan, followed by hydroelectric (26%), nuclear (3%), and renewable energy (8%), which is shown in
Figure 2.
The largest consumer of oil/petroleum products is the transport sector, that reached up to 76% in 2018–2019 (see
Figure 3) [
2]. The total oil/petroleum consumption was 18,886,507 tons in 2010–2011, which increased to 24,677,964 tons in 2017–2018, the total gas consumption was 1,240,671 mm cft in 2010–2011, which increased to 1,454,697 mm cft in 2017–2018, and the total coal consumption was 7,717,100 metric tons in 2010–2011, which increased to 17,981,100 metric tons in 2017–2018, as shown in
Figure 4,
Figure 5 and
Figure 6, respectively. Similarly, the oil/petroleum consumption for transport was 8,892,268 tons in 2010–2011, which increased to 16,047,392 tons in 2017–2018, which is shown in
Figure 7, but the gas (CNG) consumption for transport was 113,055 mm cft in 2010–2011, which decreased to 70,455 mm cft in 2017–2018, as shown in
Figure 8 [
5].
Energy crises do not just affect the lives of individuals, but also cripple the industry and hence the economic growth [
6]. The recent contribution of renewable energy is inadequate in the overall contribution of the country’s energy [
7]. Through the use of fossil fuels, Pakistan is achieving the requirements of energy [
8]. Due to the massive reliance on fossil fuels, there is a load of pressure on the country’s economy, and this trend has led to various environmental effects [
9,
10]. Furthermore, as the population of the world increases, due to which the number of vehicles increases, this trend increases the emissions of CO
2, and the same trend is happening in Pakistan [
11]. Now, Pakistan has enormous energy crises that have forced several industries to close. Therefore, the amounts of emissions of CO
2 from the industry have reduced, but there is an increasing trend in the amount of CO
2 emissions due to the increasing trend of vehicles [
12].
In Pakistan, the CO
2 emissions were 154.14 million tons in 2010, which increased to 248.84 million tons in 2019, as shown in
Figure 9 [
13]. To overcome these problems, it is necessary to use renewable [
14], reliable, and pollution-free energy sources that can combine social and economic progress along with pollution control [
15,
16]. Such renewable energy sources are primarily biofuels [
17,
18,
19], waste fuels [
20,
21], wind [
22,
23], solar [
24], and hydro. Biofuels from these resources are biodegradable, easy to use, and they are aromatic- and sulfur-free [
25]. In biofuels, biodiesel is becoming more competitive as a substitute fuel in different energy fields, particularly in transportation [
26,
27]. Its annual production in 2000 was 15,000 barrels per day, which increased to 289,000 barrels per day in 2008 [
28]. In Pakistan, biodiesel is also trending as one of the rapidly growing substitute fuels in the world [
29]. Global warming problems resulting from fossil fuel burning force the world to generate sustainable energy from renewable and eco-friendly sources [
30]. Biofuel is seen as a viable solution to transport-related energy and environmental issues [
31]. Arshad et al. conducted a study on ethanol production from molasses in Pakistan and concluded that the distillery now meets domestic demands of 5% mixing. Thus, 5% ethanol, which does not require changes to engines in a vehicle, may be mixed short-term with gasoline fuel [
32].
This study provides a review of the current status and potential of Jatropha Curcas biodiesel in Pakistan. The study begins with the introduction chapter that includes the descriptive presentation of population characteristics, alternative energy sources, and their due consumption proportions, and the periodic data of CO2 emissions is specified. This is followed by the comprehensive overview of biodiesel as renewable energy, which is further divided into some subheadings in which feedstocks, standards, policies, some policy recommendations, benefits and drawbacks, sustainability, and perspectives in Pakistan of biodiesel are summarized. The horticultural detail, growth, applications, properties, and efficiency of the diesel engine of Jatropha Curcas are summarized. Jatropha’s influence on Pakistan’s biofuel strategies and the current production of Jatropha biodiesel in Pakistan are discussed. Moreover, the potential of Jatropha biodiesel in Pakistan is calculated. The emission, environmental, and socio-economic impacts of the Jatropha Curcas oil as biodiesel are covered. Then, the SWOT analysis and the barriers to biodiesel production from Jatropha are stated. The projected actions are summarized. Finally, the policy suggestions and future routes for the production of biodiesel are covered. This paper indicated that biodiesel output from Jatropha Curcas provides the country with several environmental, economic, and social advantages, and can play a major role in addressing Pakistan’s energy shortage issue.
2. Renewable Energy: Biodiesel
Liquid biofuels are being supported by environmental and economic factors in the global energy matrix [
33]. The European Union (EU) set the scientific arrangements and technical requirements for biodiesel as EN 14214, and by the United States of America as ASTM 6751-02. Biodiesel consists of fatty acids and long-chain monoalkyl esters extracted through livestock fats or plant oils (maybe non-edible or edible) [
34,
35]. Particularly, in comparison with fossil fuel, it is non-toxic, ecofriendly, and biodegradable. The various processing techniques of biodiesel are emulsification, cracking, transesterification, and dilution of the mixing of hydrocarbons [
16,
36,
37,
38,
39]. Transesterification among the above techniques is the best technique. This method allows the oil to convert into esters, and in this method, glycerin is separated out. The biodiesel rests on the surface, from where it can be taken out, and the glycerin settles down on the floor. Ten pounds of alcohol interact in one hundred pounds of oil or fat along with a catalyst to create ten pounds of glycerin and one hundred pounds of biodiesels.
This process requires oil to react with three mol of methanol. Catalytic transesterification is the most widely used process. Three methods can be used for catalytic transesterification: catalysts of alkaline such as KOH or NaOH, enzymes such as
, and catalysts of acid such as sulfonic, sulfuric, and hydrochloric acids. Several studies found that catalytic alkali methods are more prudent and rapid from all the reactions of catalytic alkali methods [
36,
40,
41,
42], although the method catalyzed by acids provides quite high esters production. Glycerol is a critical by-product of this process used for fuel or used in the superficial industry as just a raw material [
43]. Biodiesel is now widely used in the European countries and the United States to reduce environmental contaminants and eliminate reliance on the production of fossil fuels found across various areas in the globe and rising crude petroleum prices [
44]. Biodiesel does not include petroleum additives, so it is consistent with traditional fuel and is mixed in any fossil-based gas ratio and from a natural bio-diesel combination. Therefore, biodiesel is now one of the world’s most famous forms of biofuels [
45].
2.1. Feedstocks for Biodiesel
One of the most significant benefits of developing biodiesel as a sustainable power option is the wide variety of feedstocks available for biodiesel processing [
46]. More than 350 oil-bearing plants are classified as a possible source for renewable oils, such as soybean, sunflower, palm, cottonseed, safflower oil, peanut oil, and oilseed rape [
44,
47]. Many other un-edible oils such as neem, Karanja, and Jatropha are also gaining interest [
48]. The abundance of fuel sources for producing biodiesel depends on both the country’s geographical position and farming activities. The usage of the right raw material is thus critical in maintaining nominal manufacturing costs for biodiesel. Studies have shown that only raw material accounts for more than 75% of the total cost of manufacturing biodiesel. The feedstock for biodiesel can usually be classified into four major groups [
49]:
Fats of animals: black butter, seaweed, and animal fat.
Recycled or surplus crude.
Non-edible vegetable oil: halophytes, Karanja, coral, Jatropha, and ocean plum.
Edible vegetable oil: rape, sunflower, soybean, coconut oil, and hemp oil.
2.2. Standards and Policies of Biodiesel
Worldwide, there are several policies for biodiesel, which have been set out by several countries. These policies have been encouraging biodiesel within the energy mix and raised the goal for the planned utilization of biodiesel. A list of certain biodiesel goals in chosen countries across the world is displayed in
Table 1.
The Mid-Term Policy (MTP) was subordinated to upgrades in 2006. Thus, the MTP would excel in this year’s latest short-term Renewable Energy (REP) strategy. Given that such a program’s instruments would continue to boost the growth of the sustainable energy market in the household by 2014 and beyond, the approach path is then decided. The MTP seems to be the culmination of several years of change, involving experts, advisors, and members from across Pakistan and other nations in exchanging protocols and lessons learned [
62,
63]. In early 2006, this approach was a successful one [
64,
65]. In increasing the MTP, renewable energy facilities were aimed at assisting the work of various departments of government. Due to this, the power shortage has increased Pakistan’s usage of sustainable technology. The key aims were to promote trade and encourage investment from the private sector by offering opportunities and expenditure and supporting the efficient usage of energy capital and revenue-generating behavior. It aimed to aid in developing specific scientific, organizational, and prepared competencies [
62,
66].
The Mid-Term Policy was developed in the short term, utilizing an extended summary of alternative options and renewables, to contend with participant interests, decide on policy disagreements, including the knowledge gained, and to establish that sustainable and renewable technologies are being supported. It also proposes a biodiesel strategy that extended opportunities through innovative funding, i.e., alternate energy production funds [
67,
68]. Intending to develop and use biofuel as an alternative fuel in Pakistan, the AEDB (Alternate Energy Production Board) has provided strategic guidelines for reducing import fuel bills, meeting the need for biofuel raw materials, and promoting a pollution-free environment. Additionally, as of 14 February 2008, the National Cabinet’s ECC (Economic Coordination Committee) approved the plan to use biofuel as an alternative fuel in its hearing. The canon’s critical ends will be as follows:
The Petroleum and Natural Resources Ministry can establish fuel standards of quality for B-100 (spiffy biofuel) and mix up to B-20 (20% biodiesel/80% diesel mixture).
AEDB is perhaps the main preparation and support agency for the nationwide biofuel scheme.
Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) will be sourcing biofuel (B-100) from biodiesel manufacturers and, at the time of selling, providing this processed diesel-mixed biodiesel (getting started with B-5).
The gradual introduction of biofuel combined with petroleum fuel will reach a minimum of 5% by volume of a state’s total diesel use by 2015, and 10% by 2025.
Pakistan State Oil (PSO) arranged the biodiesel pilot scheme in 2010, with the involvement of the AEDB and the Pak Agricultural Research Council. The progress of the 2012 pilot plant led to an oil marketing firm’s blend of biofuel in 2013 [
69]. Pakistan’s long-term comprehensive energy strategy accounts for four core values: availability, affordability, sustainability, and responsibility (use). As part of the overall strategy, the alternate and renewable energy) (ARE) 2019 Strategy aims to create an effective, reliable, safe, accessible, productive, and environmentally safe power grid, while encouraging the indigenization of sources of energy and the growth of local production potential in these technologies.
ARET’s key goals for 2019 are as follows:
ARET energy projects guarantee quick routes and open growth.
To protect the atmosphere by raising the proportion of “carbon” resources in the global energy mixture.
Encouraging and ensuring local capital is exploited.
Providing the minimum expense of producing energy while considering certain restrictions.
Encouraging private industry expenditure, thus maintaining reasonable return rates.
Different goals are established under this Framework which can be changed occasionally through administrative intervention instead of legislative reform. Currently, the GOP also set goals of at minimum 20% renewable power capacity generation by 2025, as well as at least 30% by 2030 (20 by 25 and 30 by 30). To accomplish such goals, the GOP must obtain a higher proportion of additional power through the alternate and renewable energy (ARE) Policy 2019, considering the limitations of baseload, variance production criteria, and alternate and renewable energy technologies (ARET’s) alternative options that are like baseload power variables [
70].
2.3. Policy Suggestions on Biodiesel
Pakistan seems to have a huge potential for generating biodiesel if the resources are being used in a sustainable manner and action is taken in the right direction. As per a report focused on evaluating the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) assumption to evaluate the ability of renewables in Pakistan data collected spanning the duration from 1970 to 2012, militant enthusiasm for EKC has been identified. Renewable electricity plays a major role in lowering CO
2 pollution, and current non-renewable activities are the key contributors to CO
2 pollution, as per previous research. The policy will also promote the extension of investment in renewable energy initiatives to offset and alleviate the effects of climate change and global warming [
71]. The major economic dependency on agriculture in Pakistan affects 70% of the country’s citizens. People’s living conditions may be improved by planting oil seed plants. Less expenditure is expected in a mini-scale production facility which can aid in biofuel development [
72]. The barren land areas that can solve water scarcity problems and soil salinity are being used for the development of oil plants. Expanding energy plants can be advantageous for the welfare of farmworkers and the state’s economy. The use of specific technology rather than several technologies is needed for effective commercially and mainstream biomass energy production settlements in Pakistan’s rural locations [
29]. Pakistan has been one of the fast-growing power economies in the world during the last 20 years due to the increasing population and rising per capita energy use, rapid urbanization, and sound economic development [
73].
Pakistan’s main contributors to a power crisis are strong electricity demand, poor energy source expertise, rising oil import prices, increasing manufacturing requirements, and accelerated demographic development. Electrical power requirements for homes and factories have risen due to fast demographic development. The world’s rural sector, which accounts for around 62% of an overall world demographic, is largely reliant on non-commercial assets [
74]. The world’s economic recession has arisen over the last five years due to an unforeseen energy crisis. Lower output along with higher losses stems from a lack of modern knowledge when using energy sources [
72]. The long-term energy problems confronted can be resolved by leveraging alternative energy sources in developed countries. Expanding the resources available and finding new outlets is necessary to keep those assets competitive. The environmental effect is indirect due to poor productivity in extra carbon emissions [
75].
In February 2008, the Ministry for Water and Power in Pakistan issued guidelines which the Cabinet’s Economic Coordinating Committee considers helpful for the use of biofuels as an alternate fuel. The plan is accepted and as per this overview, the Water and Power Ministry and Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB) will organize the National Biodiesel System to include the services. To fulfill the criteria for consistency in fuel in accordance with the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources, up to 5% of the total quantity should be mixed with biofuel by 2015 and 10% by 2025 [
63,
76]. To guarantee biodiesel’s price competitiveness with Petroleum Diesel OGRA, the price process of different biodiesel variants (B-5, B-10, etc.) should be liable. In addition to making the usage of biodiesel mandatory for public-sector automobiles operating on diesel at such a cost decided by OGRA, the government must provide biodiesel manufacturers with incentives for buying back. Manufactured plants, supplies, machines, and similar products are excluded from customs duties and taxes used in biofuel development [
77].
As with the ramifications of solar energy, the bioenergy industry still suffers from a shortage of financing, adequate policymaking, and execution. Similarly, AEDB, Pakistan’s Higher Education Commission (HEC), Pakistan’s Ministry of Climate Change (MOCC), Pakistan’s Environmental protection Agency (Pak-EPA), and PSO will take steps to cooperate with universities and institutes and distribute funding for bioenergy development and research. They need to evaluate and update the Mid-Term Policy (MTP), identify the inefficiencies in meeting the standards set in 2015, and create a detailed plan to accomplish 10% (B-10) to 20% (B-20) biofuel blends in diesel in 2025 at PSO station in Pakistan, with biofuel that will conform with ASTM requirements [
71,
78]. For meeting energy needs and discovering sustainable and anti-conventional power options, numerous problems such as analysis, growth, promotion, network creation, decentralized model of the power distribution system, business development, education, outreach initiatives, public perception, incentives, policy involvement, technology transition, acceptance, tracking, and assessment should be recognized, and there also needs to be a clear framework for consistently tracking and incorporating them at the state level [
79].
2.4. Biodiesel Benefits and Drawbacks
Biodiesel has certain benefits and deficiencies that are summarized in
Table 2 as follows.
2.5. Biodiesel Sustainability
The idea of sustainable development has been included in the United Nations Commission on the Environment’s 1987 study entitled Our Shared Future, organized by Gro Harlem Brundtland. In this study, sustainability was described as addressing the needs of today’s generation without undermining future generations’ needs. The growing concern in spreading biofuel output on a worldwide scale, in addition to the shortage of traditional fossil fuels, their increasing pollutant pollution, their growing costs, and the need to develop biodiesel sustainability and qualification requirements, has been established globally [
81,
82]. Biodiesel is used as a way out of misery for developed countries. Besides, biodiesel will offer new opportunities for innovation in agriculture research and production, and provide farmers with an income stream [
83] and promote connections to already non-existing food stores [
84]. Biodiesel usage will render any country self-dependent to a certain degree, but it is still far behind in making a substantial change in crude oil imports, which is required nowadays.
The biodiesel sustainability standards were drawn mainly from current standards established by the Sustainable Biofuels Roundtable (RSB). The following are some principles of these concepts [
85,
86]:
Biodiesel output shall lead to the growth of local communities in economic and social terms.
Biodiesel development shall prevent adverse impacts of higher ecological importance on habitats, communities, and regions.
Biodiesel shall lead to climate change mitigation by substantially reducing greenhouse gas pollution from the lifecycle relative to fossil fuels. Producers will continue to work to boost the use of biodiesels.
The biodiesel sector shall incorporate management processes in the supply chain that preserve and aim to enhance habitats, areas with high ecological value, and the efficiency of natural resources, including land, climate, and water.
The development of biodiesel would aim to enhance food protection.
The development of biodiesel shall own the rights to natural resources, including water and land.
Biodiesel’s development shall foster human and civil rights and maintain healthy and fair work conditions.
Achten et al. [
87] conducted a qualitative assessment of Jatropha production’s future feasibility, focused on the environmental, economic, and social aspects, and decided that the agriculture is viable when conducted in barren or depleted fields but not where productive regions are used that could be used to plant more lucrative grain or other crops.
2.6. Perspectives on Biofuels in Pakistan
Pakistan is a country dependent on agriculture, contributing to 19.31% of the GDP. The country’s population is over 220 million and has an annual rate of growth of 2.67%. In 2050, it will be the fourth largest nation in terms of population, as projected by Pakistan’s 2010 economic survey [
88]. Fuel poverty has risen in Pakistan because of Pakistan’s low per citizen GDP (2600 US
$) [
2]. Due to sudden increases in fuel costs, commodities have been out of reach for most of its citizens. Due to this, the unsustainability condition in the social structure is growing [
89]. A country’s economy and strong stability are related to the supply of energy, and its success relies on energy utilization per capita. Therefore, in this case, Pakistan would seem like a nation with an energy shortage [
74,
75]. In the past, numerous steps have been taken to encourage renewable energy in Pakistan. However, their outcomes are as yet unknown due to corruption and a complete lack of policy. The Appropriate Technology Council of Pakistan (PCAT) was founded in 1975 to build and improve electricity, food markets, homes, solar cookers, and irrigation for health improvements [
90].
The PCRET (Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy Technology) was founded in 2001 to boost research and development in the inexhaustible energy sector in Pakistan. PCRET’s key goals are to build carbon-free technology solutions for a sustainable world. PCRET carries out research programs in solar photovoltaics, biogas, micro-hydro, wind, and solar-thermal energy. PCRET’s research and development projects primarily include solar dryers, solar-thermal laboratory, photovoltaic goods processing, solar-powered, photovoltaic lighting, and electricity boot camps in Pakistan’s rural areas. Similarly, the AEDB (Alternative Energy Development Board), founded in 2003, already works in Pakistan to boost alternative fuels that can help to reduce gas emissions of the greenhouse, and advancement of sustainable energies through various projects also acknowledged by the International Solar Energy Society (ISES) on an international level [
79]. In Pakistan, energy demand has been significantly increased compared with its existing supplies. Due to a substantial population increase, Pakistan has been experiencing an energy shortage and growing energy demands over the last few years. There is no attempt to increase energy supply to fulfill the energy demands that expand the energy supply and usage differences every year [
75,
91].
According to an estimate, the country’s energy demand will increase three times before 2050. However, the availability is not sufficient in terms of the market. Gas and oil reserves are inadequate in Pakistan, which could only satisfy the demands over the next 10 to 19 years, respectively. Due to the worldwide trend for the last five years, fossil fuel prices have risen drastically, and Pakistan’s domestic electricity and energy production heavily depends on fossil fuels [
92,
93]. By importing oil, approximately 80% of the energy needs of Pakistan are achieved. Oil/petroleum products, gas, and hydroelectricity are the main sources of energy, while limited amounts of resources are exchanged by renewable energy and nuclear power. The industrial energy market holds 50.3% gas, 29.8% oil, 11.01% hydro, 7.6% coal, and 1.2% nuclear energy, according to figures from 2005–2006 [
94], as the collapse of Pakistan’s power supply makes clear. Thermal power plants account for 64% of overall electricity usage, while hydroelectric power accounts for around 33%, and nuclear power accounts for around 2.4% of total energy shares. It requires 44.2% of the domestic energy market. Industry uses 31.1%, while farming uses 14.3% of the country’s overall energy supply [
95].
The dramatic rise in energy rates has been a major issue for the average Pakistani citizen. For reference, the 2007 petrol price was
$0.9 USD per liter. Pakistan imported petroleum products in the fiscal year of 2006 that cost roughly USD 3.1 billion. It seemed to reflect approximately 85% of the global oil usage. Pakistan experienced an overall power deficit of 40% in 2008, equivalent to more than 4000 Megawatts. To fill the current energy deficit among electricity demand and supply, concrete and practical steps to improve Pakistan’s energy generation capacity are desperately required [
73]. Shifting the movement toward ethanol fuel would certainly save the country’s substantial foreign exchange. Mixing 10% ethanol with fuel will save
$300 million in foreign currency. Pakistan’s Hydrocarbon Development Institute (HDIP) and Pakistan State Oil (PSO) also initiated a research project to test the usefulness of blend fuel to address the country’s energy shortages [
74,
78].
Pakistan’s geographical position is unique and an ideal atmosphere, and there are several opportunities for producing wind and solar energy. However, the solar and wind power production is currently quite small, caused by a lack of government policies. Biomass energy generation is low due to traditional un-scientific activities carried out primarily in rural areas. The most widely used household fuels are farm waste, livestock waste, and tree wood for warming and cooking purposes. Large mining resources can play an important role in solving the energy problem; however, they are not utilized. Production of modern hydropower generation schemes has risen over the past two decades, though unfortunately, nuclear power still contributes to 3% of the country’s overall electricity supply [
29,
96]. Biofuels may be a better choice for meeting Pakistan’s energy needs. Furthermore, biofuels’ capacity for production and use has also not been tapped. The development of commercial biofuels did not gain much publicity.
The use of sugar from molasses could produce bioethanol. Biodiesel may be a possible source of biofuel in Pakistan [
93,
97]. In Pakistan, at least 5% of biodiesel was required as a blending fuel by 2015. In Pakistan, food crops cannot rely on the biodiesel industry. Plant oil is one possible source for biodiesel output [
98]. Pakistan State Oil (PSO) started to work on biofuels, with a concentration on biodiesel. PSO has grown Jatropha Curcas (a non-edible and promising energy source) plants at the PSO place near Sindh. Due to its specific characteristics, PSO picked Jatropha Curcas as a prospective plant choice for biodiesel, and extensive research work was carried out by countries such as Malaysia, India, Brazil, the USA, and China for the same purpose. About 1 million acres of marginal/barren/wasteland is needed for Jatropha planting to generate a 10% biodiesel blend [
29].
6. Potential of Jatropha Biodiesel in Pakistan
In Pakistan, the most suitable areas for the production of Jatropha Curcas are Punjab, Sindh, and some areas of Baluchistan. In these areas, plants’ mean age ranges from a few weeks to even more than 18 months [
137]. In Punjab, 1.52 million hectares (3,756,001) acres), in Sindh 1.60 million hectares (3,953,686 acres), and in Baluchistan 3.90 million hectares (9,637,109 acres) are uncultivated according to 2013–2014 land utilization statistics by the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics [
154]. These soils are culturable (a cultivable land but for years not planted) [
155]. This area can be used for the cultivation of Jatropha Curcas. The conditions for the Jatropha Curcas plantation are listed in
Table 9. From these conditions, the possible shortlisted areas of the Jatropha Curcas plantations in Pakistan are shown in
Figure 11.
Approximately 25% of the total barren land is suitable for Jatropha plantations. The oil yield from Jatropha Curcas is 575 kg per acre [
156]. Therefore, total oil production from Jatropha is 2.93 million tons. The plantation cost per acre for Jatropha Curcas is USD 83 [
157,
158]. Thus, the total plantation cost for Pakistan is USD 424 million. The imports of petroleum products in Pakistan were 11.84 million tons in 2018–2019, which cost USD 983.3 million [
2]. By cultivating the Jatropha Curcas in 25% of the barren land, Pakistan can cut-off ~2.93 million tons of imports of petroleum products and save USD ~2 billion reserves. The main findings of the potential of Jatropha biodiesel in Pakistan are listed in
Table 10 and illustrated in
Figure 12.
10. Projected Actions
It is clear from the previous discussion that biodiesel is a substantial alternative for an energy-intensive country to cope with its environmental and economic crisis. This study proposed a simple and rational approach by extracting temporary results from these studies to address previous studies’ shortcomings. Modern biodiesel planning has importance where wheat, sugar cane, and cotton are in high demand for the region, such as in Pakistan. In this situation, encouraging farm workers to grow Jatropha is a radical change. It can only be achieved in areas where canal/land resources are limited, limiting the above crops’ cultivation. The Pakistani government supports the development of Jatropha in these areas by providing canal/groundwater drip irrigation that will improve production and benefit. It would also secure a sustained supply of non-edible oils by decreasing reliance on rainwater, along with these advantages. Due to this method’s simplicity and reliability, continuous feeding of inedible biodiesel oil through a microscope can add additional economic benefits.
Given the high fatty acid content of Jatropha oils, the acidic esterification method can be used in a two-step process following ultra-catalytic transesterification. Additionally, to obtain biodiesel, maximum product performance must be achieved through value creation. Plans to grow local biodiesel have been redesigned to bring this idea to life. The proposed policy suggests that nearby ethanol would be the best location for biodiesel factories. Such cogeneration refineries already have biomass and biomass/biogas digesters that can integrate fired power plants into our network. When natural gas/energy runs out in the environment, fermented ethanol can purify biogas. It can be used as a supplement to generate gas or electricity. In contrast to this method, if the plant is close to the community, the shoots can be separated and turned into animal feed and fertilizer. The biodiesel produced in this way can be used as fuel in nearby areas or transported to a nearby city after mixing. The synthetic glycerin will be used directly in the fuel cell and reduce the demand for electricity from the biodiesel plant’s main grid.