Cellulases: From Lignocellulosic Biomass to Improved Production
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Lignocellulosic Biomass
2.1. Lignocellulosic Biomass Sources
2.2. Lignocellulose Composition
2.2.1. Cellulose
2.2.2. Hemicellulose
2.2.3. Lignin
2.3. Lignocellulose Recalcitrance
3. Cellulases—The Cellulose Degrading Enzymes
4. Production of Microbial Cellulases
4.1. Factors Affecting Cellulase Production
4.1.1. Solid State Fermentation vs. Submerged Fermentation
4.1.2. Nutrients
4.1.3. Temperature
4.1.4. pH
4.1.5. Incubation Time
4.1.6. The Content of Moisture
4.2. Approaches for Cost-Effective Cellulase and Bioethanol Production
4.2.1. Strain Improvement and Genetic Engineering
4.2.2. Waste Substrates as Medium Constituents for the Synthesis of Enzymes
4.2.3. Integrated Cellulase Production
4.2.4. Co-Culture System
4.2.5. Improvement of Bioreactor Design
4.2.6. Cellulase Immobilization
4.3. Cellulase Market Outlook
4.4. Commercial Cellulase for Bioethanol Production
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Microorganism | Process | Substrate | Fermentation Conditions | Cellulase Activity | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Trichoderma reesei QM9414 | SmF | Pea hulls | 91 h, 30 °C, pH 5 | Filter paper activity 0.372 ± 0.019 U/mL | [60] |
Aspergillus niger ITV 02 | SmF | Delignified sweet sorghum bagasse (10% w/v), 0.9 g/L urea, 2.4 g/L ammonium sulfate, and 1.5 g/L yeast extrac | 50 h, 30 °C | Endoglucanase activity 0.61 ± 0.025 Endoglucanase specific activity 126.72 ± 1.83 β-glucosidase ativity 0.41 ± 0.006 Specific β-glucosidase ativity 85.0 ± 0.40 | [61] |
Bacillus aerius MG597041 | SmF | Yeast extract of 0.5 g/L, peptone of 0.5 g/L, FeSO4 of 0.2 g/L, and K2HPO4 of 0.02 g/L | 24 h, pH 5.5, 37°C | Filter paper activity 127.4 IU/mL/min | [62] |
Bacillus subtilis K-18 | SmF | Potato peel | 50 °C for 24 h of fermentation period; 2% substrate concentration, 2% inoculum size, 1% yeast extract, and pH 5.0, | 3.50 ± 0.11 IU/mL | [63] |
Hymenobacter sp. CKS3 | SmF | 5.0% corn stover, 2.5% molasses | 4 days | CMCase 1.11 IU/mL Avicelase 0.92 IU/mL | [64] |
Trichoderma stromaticum AM7 | SSF | Peach-palm waste | 12 days 26 °C | CMCase 120 U/g | [65] |
Aspergillus niger NRRL3 | SSF | Soybean hulls | 96 h 30 °C | Endoglucanase activity 5914.29 U/L Exoglucanase activity 4551.19 U/L β-glucosidase activity 984.01 U/L | [66] |
Streptomyces fulvissimus CKS7 | SSF | Rye bran | 6 days 30 °C Solid moisture ratio 1:1 | Endoglucanase (CMCase) 8.62± 0.08; Exoglucanase (Avicelase) 5.98 ± 0.22 | [45] |
Sinorhizobium meliloti 224 | SSF | Waste tobacco | 2 days 28 °C | Avicelase activity 1.503 U/g Carboxymethyl cellulase activity of 1.615 U/g | [67] |
Penicillium oxalicum EU2106 | SSF | Cassava residue | 5 days 28 °C | 34.0 ± 2.8 filter-paper units/g dry substrate | [68] |
Bacillus subtilis MS 54 | SSF | Maize bran | 3 days 37 °C | CMCase 28.84 IU/g) | [69] |
Talaromyces verruculosus IIPC 324 | SSF | Wheat bran | 4 days 24 °C Moisture content 62.5% | Endoglucanase 250 U/g | [70] |
Fomes fomentarius TMF2 | SSF | Sunfower meal | 6 days 30 °C Moisture content 62.5% | CMCase 1.49 ± 0.10 U/g Avicelase 1.02 ± 0.07 U/g | [71] |
Schizophyllum commune TMF3 | SSF | Sunfower meal | 6 days 30 °C Moisture content 62.5% | CMCase 2.51 ± 0.13 U/g Avicelase 1.60 ± 0.09 U/g | [71] |
Bjerkandera adusta TMF1 | SSF | Brewer’s spent grain | 6 days 30 °C Moisture content 62.5% | CMCase 2.76 ± 0.16 U/g Avicelase 2.76 ± 0.16 U/g | [71] |
SSF | SmF | |
---|---|---|
Strengths | The high productivity Utilization of alternative low-cost substrate Minimal power required Minimal water production No or little foam up creation Displays the native habitat of filamentous fungi, which is why they are better adjusted Generating greater enzyme volumes that can be isolated or used for direct, extraction-free hydrolysis of biomass | Sterilization, heating, and mass transfer are simplified Enhanced process tracking (temperature, pH, and soluble molecules), and automation Simple access to extracellular secreted enzymes Large commercial facilities use SmF for cellulase synthesis since there are advanced bioreactors available, which allow simple mass transfer and easy processing |
Weaknesses | Heat generation Lack of knowledge of automation Slow aeration and reduced mass transfer Possible high level of mycotoxins | Continuous supply with medium supplements or nutrients is needed Low-end product purity necessitates additional refining |
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Ilić, N.; Milić, M.; Beluhan, S.; Dimitrijević-Branković, S. Cellulases: From Lignocellulosic Biomass to Improved Production. Energies 2023, 16, 3598. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083598
Ilić N, Milić M, Beluhan S, Dimitrijević-Branković S. Cellulases: From Lignocellulosic Biomass to Improved Production. Energies. 2023; 16(8):3598. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083598
Chicago/Turabian StyleIlić, Nevena, Marija Milić, Sunčica Beluhan, and Suzana Dimitrijević-Branković. 2023. "Cellulases: From Lignocellulosic Biomass to Improved Production" Energies 16, no. 8: 3598. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16083598