The Story, Properties and Applications of Bioactive Glass “1d”: From Concept to Early Clinical Trials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Genesis of the 1d Composition
3. Material Preparation and Basic Properties
4. Crystalline Phases and Mechanical Properties
4.1. Fluorapatite
4.2. Wollastonite
4.3. Diopside
5. Comparison between 1d Formulation and 45S5 Bioglass®
5.1. Chemical Composition
- The content of Na2O in 45S5 is more than five times greater when compared to 1d;
- The 1d glass contains additional MgO and CaF2, which are not present in the case of the 45S5 Bioglass®.
5.2. Advanced Microstructural Analysis (Qn Units)
5.3. pH In Vitro
5.4. Mass Loss
5.5. In Vitro Bioactivity
5.6. Direct and Indirect Cell Culture
- (a)
- Indirect culture: the bioactive glasses were immersed in a solution for 24 h at body temperature and shaken to promote the release of ionic dissolution products. At the end of this first phase, the glasses were removed, and the solution was filtered and used as a culture medium for mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). This setting is used to verify the effects of the ions released.
- (b)
- Direct culture: the bioactive glasses removed from the solution in the point (a) were placed in direct contact with MSCs.
- -
- Indirect culture setting: 45S5 glass elicited a better osteogenic action compared to 1d glass. This behaviour was because, in the former case, there was a higher concentration of P and Si ions in the cell culture medium having osteostimulatory effects. In fact, phosphorus stimulates osteogenic differentiation and bone mineralization [50], and Si ions also activate gene families in bone cells, ultimately promoting osteogenic differentiation [51].
- -
- Direct culture setting: there was a reversal in the trend compared to the indirect culture setting. In fact, the osteogenic action was no longer so different between the two bioactive glasses, although the expression of the specific protein OCN (marker of osteogenic differentiation) was greater in the 1d cultures. The concentration of magnesium, which was released by the 1d glass, in the first 24 h was one tenth of that detected after a week, and the concentration of Ca increased over time in the medium. This progressive, increasing release of beneficial ions is important as magnesium ions have the ability to increase cell viability [52], and calcium ions improve cell viability and proliferation [53]. These promising in vitro results on 1d glass were corroborated by in vivo tests.
5.7. Antibacterial Properties
6. In Vivo Experiments and Clinical Trials
7. Towards the Future: 1d-Derived GC Dental Implants and Porous Scaffolds
7.1. GC Dental Implants
7.2. Glass-Derived Porous Scaffolds
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Composition | SiO2 | CaO | MgO | P2O5 | Na2O | K2O | CaF2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Parent glass composition | |||||||
1d | 46.1 | 28.7 | 8.8 | 6.2 | 4.5 | 0 | 5.7 |
1d-a | 41.8 | 32.85 | 8.85 | 6.24 | 4.54 | 0 | 5.72 |
1d-b | 37.51 | 37.07 | 8.88 | 6.26 | 4.55 | 0 | 5.73 |
1e | 43.5 | 30.4 | 8.8 | 7.2 | 4.5 | 0 | 5.6 |
1e-a | 43.09 | 30.13 | 8.67 | 9.17 | 4.44 | 0 | 4.47 |
1e-b | 42.71 | 29.85 | 8.59 | 11.1 | 4.41 | 0 | 3.33 |
1e-c | 42.33 | 29.59 | 8.52 | 13.00 | 4.37 | 0 | 2.19 |
K2O for Na2O substitution | |||||||
1d-k | 45.0 | 28.0 | 8.60 | 6.1 | 0 | 6.7 | 5.6 |
1e-k | 42.5 | 29.7 | 8.5 | 7.1 | 0 | 6.7 | 5.5 |
MgO for CaO partial substitution | |||||||
1d-m | 46.6 | 24.8 | 11.9 | 6.3 | 4.6 | 0 | 5.8 |
1e-m | 44.00 | 26.7 | 11.8 | 7.3 | 4.5 | 0 | 5.7 |
Article | Powders | Batch and Milling | Heat Treatment | Frits and Glass Powders |
---|---|---|---|---|
I. Kansal et al. [18] | SiO2 (purity > 99.5%), CaCO3 (>99.5%), MgCO3 (>99%), Na2CO3(>99%), CaF2 (>99.9%), NH4H2PO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors of about 100 g obtained by ball milling. | Pre-heating at 900 °C for 1 h for calcination. Melting in Pt crucible at 1450–1550 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by quenching of melted glass in water. Frits are dried and then milled in agate mill. Powders are sieved to obtain a mean particle size of about 10 μm. |
D. U. Tulyaganov et al. [22] | SiO2 (purity>99.5%), CaCO3 (>99.5%), 4MgCO3∙Mg(OH)2∙5H2O (>99%), Na2CO3 (>99%), CaF2 (>99%), NH4H2PO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors of about 100 g obtained by ball milling. | Pre-heating at 1000 °C for 1 h for decarbonization. Melting in Pt crucible at 1400 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by quenching of melted glass in water. Frits are dried and then milled in a porcelain mill. Powders are sieved to obtain a mean particle size of 11–14 μm. |
S. I. Schmitz et al. [23] | SiO2 (purity > 99.5%), CaCO3 (>99.5%), 4MgCO3·Mg(OH)2·5H2O (>99%), Na2CO3 (>99%), CaF2 (>99%), NH4H2PO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors. | Pre-heating at 1000 °C for 1 h for decarbonization. Melting in Pt-crucible at 1400 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by quenching of melted glass in deionized water. Frits are dried and then milled in a planetary mill. Powders are sieved to obtain a final particle size <32 μm. |
D. U. Tulyaganov et al. [24] | SiO2 (purity > 99.5%), CaCO3 (>99.5%), MgCO3 (>99%), Na2CO3 (>99%), CaF2 (>99%), NH4H2PO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors. | Pre-heating at 1000 °C for 1 h for decarbonization. Melting in Pt crucible at 1400 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by quenching of melted glass in water. Frites are dried and then milled. Powders are sieved to obtain a mean particle size of 10–15 μm. |
K. Dimitriadis et al. [20] | SiO2 (purity > 99.5%), CaCO3 (>99.5%), Mg(NO3)2∙6H2O (>99%), Na2CO3 (>99%), CaF2 (>99%), (NH4)2HPO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors of about 100 g. | Pre-heating at 900 °C for 1 h for decarbonization. Melting in Pt crucible at 1400 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by quenching of melted glass in water. Frits are dried and then milled in a planetary mill. Powders are sieved to obtain a final particle size <32 μm. |
F. Baino et al. [25] | SiO2 (purity > 99.5%), CaCO3 (>99.5%), MgCO3 (>99%), Na2CO3 (>99%), CaF2 (>99.9%), NH4H2PO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors of about 100 g by ball milling. | Pre-heating at 850 °C for 1 h in an Al2O3 at heating rate of 2.5 °C/min. Melting in Pt crucible at 1420 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by quenching of melted glass in water. Frits are dried and then milled in a planetary mill. Powders are sieved to obtain a final particle size <56 μm. |
K. Dimitriadis et al. [19] | SiO2 (purity > 99.8%), CaCO3 (>99%), Mg(NO3)2∙6H2O (>99%), Na2CO3 (>99.6%), CaF2 (>99%), (NH4)2HPO4 (>99%) | Homogenous mixture of precursors of about 100 g by ball milling. | Pre-heating at 900 °C for 1 h in an Al2O3 crucible at heating rate of 1.5 °C/min. Melting in Pt crucible at 1400 °C for 1 h. | Frits are obtained by rapid pouring of melted glass in water. Frits are dried and then milled in a planetary ball-mill at 400 rpm for 45 min in a YSZ milling jar. Powders are sieved to obtain a final particle size <32 μm. |
Article | Tg (°C) | Tc (°C) | Tp (°C) |
---|---|---|---|
K. Dimitriadis et al. [19] | 649 ± 9 | 783 ± 2 | 815 ± 13 |
F. Baino et al. [25] | 640 | 785 | 830 |
K. Dimitriadis et al. [20] | 655 ± 5 | 783 ± 2 | 845 ± 13 |
D. U. Tulyaganov et al. [24] | 607 ± 7 | - | 815 ± 13 |
D. U. Tulyaganov et al. [22] | 590 ± 10 | - | - |
Materials | Heat Treatment (°C) | Flexural Strength (σ, MPa) | Elastic Modulus (E, GPa) | Vickers Microhardness (HV, GPa) | Fracture Tοughness (KIC, MPa · m0.5) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1d-derived GCs [28] | 800 | 119 ± 10 | 24 ± 6 | 6.0 ± 0.4 | 1.6 ± 0.1 |
850 | 171 ± 11 | 27 ± 5 | 6.1 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.1 | |
900 | 141 ± 6 | 22 ± 4 | 5.2 ± 0.7 | 1.4 ± 0.1 | |
GCs containing diopside and fluorapatite [29] | 850 | 120–195 | - | - | - |
GCs containing wollastonite and quartz [30] | 900–1000 | 98 ± 6 | - | 5.9–6.7 | - |
GCs containing wollastonite, hydroxyapatite and fluorite [31,32] | 700–1000 | - | 89–100 | - | 4.6–5.6 |
GCs containing wollastonite [33] | 3100 (flame-spraying) | - | 37–56 | 2.6–5.4 | - |
GCs containing wollastonite and diopside [33] | 3100 (flame-spraying) | - | 62–77 | 2.2–6.5 | - |
Glasses | SiO2 | CaO | MgO | P2O5 | CaF2 | Na2O |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1d glass (wt.%) | 46.1 | 28.7 | 8.8 | 6.2 | 5.7 | 4.5 |
45S5 Bioglass® (wt.%) | 45 | 24.5 | - | 6 | - | 24.5 |
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Tulyaganov, D.U.; Agathopoulos, S.; Dimitriadis, K.; Fernandes, H.R.; Gabrieli, R.; Baino, F. The Story, Properties and Applications of Bioactive Glass “1d”: From Concept to Early Clinical Trials. Inorganics 2024, 12, 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12080224
Tulyaganov DU, Agathopoulos S, Dimitriadis K, Fernandes HR, Gabrieli R, Baino F. The Story, Properties and Applications of Bioactive Glass “1d”: From Concept to Early Clinical Trials. Inorganics. 2024; 12(8):224. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12080224
Chicago/Turabian StyleTulyaganov, Dilshat U., Simeon Agathopoulos, Konstantinos Dimitriadis, Hugo R. Fernandes, Roberta Gabrieli, and Francesco Baino. 2024. "The Story, Properties and Applications of Bioactive Glass “1d”: From Concept to Early Clinical Trials" Inorganics 12, no. 8: 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12080224