Evaluating Biocompounds in Discarded Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) Leaves and Stems for Sustainable Food Processing Solutions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Sample Preparation and Drying Process
2.2.2. Proximate Chemical Characterization and Water Activity
2.2.3. Amino Acid Profile
2.2.4. Fatty Acid Profile
2.2.5. Mineral Composition and Phytic Acid Determination
2.2.6. Functional Properties and Color
2.2.7. Extraction of Bioactive Compounds
2.2.8. Determination of Betalains, Total Phenolics, and Antioxidant Capacity
2.2.9. Determination of Nitrate
2.2.10. Food Product Development and Organoleptic Analysis
2.2.11. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Drying Characteristics
3.2. Proximate Chemical Composition and Water Activity
3.3. Amino Acid Profile
3.4. Fatty Acid Profile
3.5. Determination of Mineral Composition and Phytic Acid
Minerals | Units | Stems | Leaves | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ca | mg/100 g | 325.00 | ± | 21.21 a | 1445.00 | ± | 7.07 b | ||||
Mg | mg/100 g | 590.00 | ± | 28.28 a | 1310.00 | ± | 28.28 b | ||||
Macroelements | P | mg/100 g | 315.00 | ± | 7.07 a | 300.00 | ± | 14.14 a | |||
K | mg/100 g | 6155.00 | ± | 120.21 b | 3040.00 | ± | 0.00 a | ||||
Cu | mg/100 g | 0.45 | ± | 0.07 a | 1.15 | ± | 0.07 b | ||||
Mn | mg/100 g | 5.65 | ± | 0.64 a | 33.85 | ± | 3.61 b | ||||
Microelements | Zn | mg/100 g | 1.85 | ± | 0.07 a | 2.75 | ± | 0.07 b | |||
Fe | mg/100 g | 15.95 | ± | 0.92 a | 43.80 | ± | 1.13 b | ||||
Flour (g) * | 1 | 5 | 10 | 1 | 5 | 10 | |||||
Ca | DRIs 1000 | mg/day | 33 | 163 | 325 | 145 | 723 | 1445 | |||
Mg | DRIs 350/300 | mg/day | 169/197 | 843/983 | 1689/1967 | 374/437 | 1871/2183 | 3743/4367 | |||
Contribution to DRIs (%) * | P | DRIs 550 | mg/day | 57 | 286 | 573 | 55 | 273 | 545 | ||
Cu | DRIs 1.6/1.3 | mg/day | 28/35 | 141/173 | 281/346 | 72/88 | 359/442 | 719/885 | |||
Mn | DRIs 2.3/1.8 | mg/day | 246/314 | 1228/1569 | 2457/3139 | 1472/1881 | 7359/9403 | 14717 | |||
Zn | DRIs 11/8 | mg/day | 17/23 | 9.25 | 18.5 | 2.75 | 13.75 | 18806 | |||
Fe | DRIs 11/7 | mg/day | 145/228 | 725/1139 | 1450/2279 | 398/626 | 1991/3129 | 3982/6257 | |||
Ratio | Ins P6/Ca < 0.24 | 21.50 | 6.68 | ||||||||
Ins P6/Fe < 1 | 0.0006 | 0.0003 | |||||||||
Ins P6/Zn < 15 | 0.006 | 0.006 |
3.6. Functional Properties and Color
3.7. Determination of the Phenolic Content, Total Phenolic Content, and Antioxidant Capacity
3.8. Analysis of Nitrates
3.9. Organoleptic Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Formulation | Cornmeal (%) | Beetroot Stem Flour (%) | Beetroot Leaf Flour (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Snack 1 | 100 | - | - |
Snack 2 | 90 | 5 | 5 |
Snack 3 | 80 | 10 | 10 |
Component (g/100 g) d.m | Leaves | Stems | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
50 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | 50 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | |||||||||||||
Water Activity | 0.5036 | ± | 0.0013 c | 0.4278 | ± | 0.0008 b | 0.2011 | ± | 0.0148 a | 0.4957 | ± | 0.0021 c | 0.2851 | ± | 0.0011 b | 0.1963 | ± | 0.0066 a |
Protein | 30.39 | ± | 0.23 c | 30.54 | ± | 0.98 c | 30.24 | ± | 0.86 c | 15.24 b | ± | 0.39 | 14.20 | ± | 0.01 a | 14.44 | ± | 0.51 a |
Lipids | 4.0 | ± | 0.02 c | 4.1 | ± | 0.03 b | 3.5 | ± | 0.02 a | 0.46 | ± | 0.01 b | 0.53 | ± | 0.02 a | 0.44 | ± | 0.02 b |
Phytic Acid | 0.146 | ± | 0.001 c | 0.162 | ± | 0.003 b | 0.178 | ± | 0.004 a | 0.133 | ± | 0.006 d | 0.118 | ± | 0.001 e | 0.077 | ± | 0.001 f |
Total Dietary Fiber | 30.74 | ± | 1.68 a | 27.09 | ± | 6.73 ab | 30.42 | ± | 1.07 ab | 32.88 | ± | 2.24 b | 33.51 | ± | 0.424 b | 32.71 | ± | 2.04 b |
Ash | 23.72 a | ± | 0.12 | 24.15 a | ± | 0.02 | 24.21 ab | ± | 0.04 | 24.88 c | ± | 0.01 | 25.43 bc | ± | 0.18 | 25.47 bc | ± | 0.07 |
E.N.N | 12.45 | 15.36 | 12.75 | 25.53 | 25.36 | 26.10 |
Leaves (50 °C) | Leaves (60 °C) | Leaves (70 °C) | Stems (50 °C) | Stems (60 °C) | Stems (70 °C) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Essential aminoacids | ||||||||||||||||||
Histidine | 0.216 | ± | 0.009 b | 0.125 | ± | 0.008 a | 0.203 | ± | 0.002 b | 0.083 | ± | 0.005 a | 0.082 | ± | 0.002 a | 0.099 | ± | 0.002 a |
Threonine | 0.466 | ± | 0.015 b | 0.464 | ± | 0.008 b | 0.418 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.144 | ± | 0.003 b | 0.138 | ± | 0.005 ab | 0.123 | ± | 0.002 a |
Valine | 0.065 | ± | 0.002 a | 0.051 | ± | 0.006 a | 0.047 | ± | 0.001 a | 0.000 | ± | 0.000 | 0.000 | ± | 0.000 | 0.000 | ± | 0.000 |
Methionine | 0.009 | ± | 0.003 a | 0.022 | ± | 0.001 c | 0.018 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.003 | ± | 0.000 b | 0.002 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.002 | ± | 0.000 a |
Cysteine | 0.049 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.060 | ± | 0.004 b | 0.039 | ± | 0.000 c | 0.039 | ± | 0.003 a | 0.032 | ± | 0.003 a | 0.065 | ± | 0.001 b |
Isoleucine | 0.475 | ± | 0.002 c | 0.410 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.365 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.173 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.161 | ± | 0.002 b | 0.103 | ± | 0.005 a |
Leucine | 0.851 | ± | 0.005 c | 0.670 | ± | 0.004 b | 0.608 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.287 | ± | 0.002 b | 0.266 | ± | 0.003 b | 0.151 | ± | 0.007 a |
Phenylalanine | 0.524 | ± | 0.008 c | 0.486 | ± | 0.003 b | 0.436 | ± | 0.004 a | 0.168 | ± | 0.007 b | 0.157 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.102 | ± | 0.002 a |
Tyrosyne | 0.821 | ± | 0.002 c | 0.713 | ± | 0.006 b | 0.608 | ± | 0.006 a | 0.286 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.269 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.169 | ± | 0.011 a |
Lysine | 0.631 | ± | 0.003 c | 0.565 | ± | 0.006 b | 0.521 | ± | 0.004 a | 0.219 | ± | 0.009 b | 0.202 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.134 | ± | 0.003 a |
EAAs | 4.106 | 3.565 | 3.263 | 1.402 | 1.308 | 0.947 | ||||||||||||
Non-essential aminoacids | ||||||||||||||||||
Alanine | 0.744 | ± | 0.002 c | 0.707 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.633 | ± | 0.006 a | 0.299 | ± | 0.010 ab | 0.336 | ± | 0.013 b | 0.259 | ± | 0.010 a |
Arginine | 0.489 | ± | 0.001 a | 0.470 | ± | 0.014 a | 0.439 | ± | 0.002 a | 0.013 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.018 | ± | 0.000 b | 0.013 | ± | 0.001 a |
Aspartic acid | 1.228 | ± | 0.028 c | 1.003 | ± | 0.020 b | 0.878 | ± | 0.005 a | 0.405 | ± | 0.002 c | 0.388 | ± | 0.002 b | 0.271 | ± | 0.002 a |
Glutamic acid | 1.668 | ± | 0.020 c | 1.371 | ± | 0.020 b | 1.188 | ± | 0.004 a | 0.692 | ± | 0.025 b | 0.550 | ± | 0.013 a | 0.470 | ± | 0.019 a |
Glycine | 0.700 | ± | 0.006 b | 0.744 | ± | 0.013 b | 0.673 | ± | 0.005 a | 0.297 | ± | 0.004 b | 0.303 | ± | 0.004 b | 0.278 | ± | 0.001 a |
Hydroxiproline | 0.071 | ± | 0.002 b | 0.065 | ± | 0.001 a | 0.069 | ± | 0.001 ab | 0.181 | ± | 0.001 b | 0.161 | ± | 0.001 a | 0.154 | ± | 0.004 a |
Serine | 0.511 | ± | 0.028 b | 0.508 | ± | 0.010 b | 0.464 | ± | 0.000 a | 0.228 | ± | 0.003 c | 0.205 | ± | 0.003 b | 0.186 | ± | 0.003 a |
Parameter | Lipid Number | Units | Leaves 50 °C | Leaves 60 °C | Leaves 70 °C | Stems 50 °C | Stems 60 °C | Stems 70 °C | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lipids | g/100 g | 4 | 4.1 | 3.5 | 0.46 | 0.53 | 0.44 | |||||||||||||
Total saturated fatty acids | g/100 g | 0.8 a | 0.93 c | 0.88 b | 0.10 a | 0.10 a | 0.10 a | |||||||||||||
Total Polyunsaturated fatty acids | g/100 g | 2.9 c | 2.84 b | 2.37 a | 0.32 b | 0.39 c | 0.30 a | |||||||||||||
Total monounsaturated fatty acids | g/100 g | 0.30 b | 0.33 c | 0.25 a | 0.04 a | 0.04 a | 0.04 a | |||||||||||||
Fatty acid | ||||||||||||||||||||
Myristic | C14:0 | g/100 g | 0.04 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 b | Traces | Traces | Traces | ||||||
Palmitic | C16:0 | g/100 g | 0.58 | ± | 0.01 a | 0.69 | ± | 0.00 c | 0.66 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.08 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.08 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.08 | ± | 0.00 a |
Margarico | C17:0 | g/100 g | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | Traces | Traces | ||||||
Stearic | C18:0 | g/100 g | 0.09 | ± | 0.01 a | 0.11 | ± | 0.01 c | 0.10 | ± | 0.01 b | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | ||
Arachidic | C20:0 | g/100 g | 0.02 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.02 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | Traces | Traces | ||||||
Behenic | C22:0 | g/100 g | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | Traces | Traces | ||||||
Lignocerico | C24:0 | g/100 g | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | ||
Other Unidentified | - | g/100 g | 0.35 | ± | 0.01 b | 0.49 | ± | 0.03 c | 0.25 | ± | 0.03 a | 0.02 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.02 | ± | 0.00 a |
Ʃ SFA | 0.8 a | 0.93 c | 0.88 b | 0.10 a | 0.10 a | 0.10 a | ||||||||||||||
Palmitoleic acid | C16:1n7 | g/100 g | Traces | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | Traces | Traces | ||||||||
Oleic | C18:1n9 | g/100 g | 0.29 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.31 | ± | 0.00 c | 0.24 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.04 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.04 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.03 | ± | 0.00 a |
Eicosanoic acid | C20:1n9 | g/100 g | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.01 | ± | 0.00 a | Traces | Traces | Traces | ||||||
Ʃ MUFA | 2.9 c | 2.84 b | 2.37 a | 0.32 b | 0.39 c | 0.30 a | ||||||||||||||
Linoleic acid (LA) | C18:2n6c | g/100 g | 0.54 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.57 | ± | 0.00 c | 0.51 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.19 | ± | 0.00 a | 0.24 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.19 | ± | 0.00 a |
α-Linolenic acid (ALA) | C18:3n3 | g/100 g | 2.36 | ± | 0.03 c | 2.26 | ± | 0.03 b | 1.86 | ± | 0.03 a | 0.13 | ± | 0.00 b | 0.15 | ± | 0.00 c | 0.10 | ± | 0.00 a |
Ʃ PUFA | 0.30 b | 0.33 c | 0.25 a | 0.04 a | 0.04 a | 0.04 a | ||||||||||||||
Total omega 3 | g/100 g | 2.36 c | 2.26 b | 1.86 a | 0.13 b | 0.15 c | 0.10 a | |||||||||||||
Total omega 6 | g/100 g | 0.54 b | 0.57 c | 0.51 a | 0.19 a | 0.24 b | 0.19 a | |||||||||||||
LA/ALA | C18:2n6c/C18:3n3 | g/g | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.27 | 1.46 | 1.6 | 1.9 |
Sample | WAdC * (g Water/g Sample) | WAbC * (g Water/g Sample) | WHC * (g Water/g Sample) | OHC * (g Oil/g Sample) | Solubility (%) | ||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
30 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | 80 °C | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Leaves | 50 °C | 0.631 | ± | 0.036 a | 5.93 | ± | 0.75 bc | 5.17 | ± | 0.10 a | 2.29 | ± | 0.06 c | 41.63 | ± | 1.19 b | 33.10 | ± | 1.62 c | 39.53 | ± | 0.74 a | 40.70 | ± | 2.62 ab |
60 °C | 0.631 | ± | 0.002 a | 5.40 | ± | 0.17 ab | 5.17 | ± | 0.12 a | 2.17 | ± | 0.09 ab | 40.69 | ± | 1.44 ab | 36.00 | ± | 1.26 c | 39.82 | ± | 0.37 a | 38.88 | ± | 1.88 a | |
70 °C | 0.618 | ± | 0.006 a | 5.22 | ± | 0.73 a | 5.09 | ± | 0.19 a | 2.19 | ± | 0.03 bc | 37.75 | ± | 1.61 a | 36.42 | ± | 1.34 c | 38.31 | ± | 1.28 a | 42.56 | ± | 1.39 bc | |
Stems | 50 °C | 1.28 | ± | 0.02 b | 7.27 | ± | 0.25 d | 8.15 | ± | 0.31 b | 2.55 | ± | 0.11 d | 45.14 | ± | 1.74 c | 47.84 | ± | 1.58 a | 48.98 | ± | 1.07 b | 44.78 | ± | 1.72 cd |
60 °C | 1.32 | ± | 0.01 b | 6.36 | ± | 0.23 c | 7.66 | ± | 0.30 c | 2.21 | ± | 0.01 bc | 47.45 | ± | 1.85 c | 48.19 | ± | 0.46 b | 48.90 | ± | 1.79 b | 48.35 | ± | 1.78 e | |
70 °C | 1.370 | ± | 0.04 c | 6.06 | ± | 0.14 c | 6.01 | ± | 0.20 d | 2.09 | ± | 0.04 a | 46.88 | ± | 2.31 c | 48.96 | ± | 0.87 b | 46.31 | ± | 0.88 b | 46.15 | ± | 0.86 de |
CieLab | Leaves | Stems | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
50 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | 50 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | |||||||||||||
L* | 54.68 | ± | 0.31 c | 52.13 | ± | 0.50 b | 50.17 | ± | 1.47 a | 49.45 | ± | 0.31 a | 50.19 | ± | 0.60 a | 52.11 | ± | 0.33 b |
a* | −8.79 | ± | 0.14 a | −8.53 | ± | 0.38 ab | −8.14 | ± | 0.27 b | 15.52 | ± | 0.47 e | 12.61 | ± | 0.20 d | 6.72 | ± | 0.45 c |
b* | 15.57 | ± | 0.08 d | 15.33 | ± | 0.72 d | 15.53 | ± | 1.19 d | 0.86 | ± | 0.08 a | 3.22 | ± | 0.18 b | 6.37 | ± | 0.18 c |
Parameters | Leaves | Stems | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
50 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | 50 °C | 60 °C | 70 °C | |||||||||||||
TPC (1) (mg GAE/100 g) | 558.9 | ± | 5.3 b | 512.3 | ± | 27.4 a | 478.2 | ± | 12.9 a | 365.3 | ± | 25.1 a | 362.2 | ± | 69.8 a | 294.7 | ± | 6.2 a |
DPPH (2) (µmol TE/100 g) | 2057.24 | ± | 1023.8 a | 3860.53 | ± | 480.5 b | 3811.92 | ± | 198.7 b | 2561.96 | ± | 529.5 a | 3949.78 | ± | 552.2 a | 2839.92 | ± | 1108.7 a |
Nitrate (mg/kg) | 159 | ± | 0 c | 126 | ± | 0 b | 100 | ± | 0 a | 359 | ± | 0 c | 314 | ± | 0 b | 126.5 | ± | 0.5 a |
Parameters | Control | 10% | 20% | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Color | 4.5 | ± | 0.7 c | 3.8 | ± | 1.1 b | 3 | ± | 0.9 a |
Flavor | 3.8 | ± | 0.9 ab | 4 | ± | 1.0 c | 3.3 | ± | 1.0 a |
Texture | 3.6 | ± | 0.8 a | 3.6 | ± | 1.2 a | 3.3 | ± | 1.0 a |
General acceptability | 3.8 | ± | 0.8 b | 3.8 | ± | 1.1 b | 3.1 | ± | 1.0 a |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Mella, C.; Rojas, N.; Calderon-Bravo, H.; Muñoz, L.A. Evaluating Biocompounds in Discarded Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) Leaves and Stems for Sustainable Food Processing Solutions. Foods 2024, 13, 2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162603
Mella C, Rojas N, Calderon-Bravo H, Muñoz LA. Evaluating Biocompounds in Discarded Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) Leaves and Stems for Sustainable Food Processing Solutions. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162603
Chicago/Turabian StyleMella, Carolina, Natalia Rojas, Hector Calderon-Bravo, and Loreto A. Muñoz. 2024. "Evaluating Biocompounds in Discarded Beetroot (Beta vulgaris) Leaves and Stems for Sustainable Food Processing Solutions" Foods 13, no. 16: 2603. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162603