Nitrate, Nitrite, and Iodine Concentrations in Commercial Edible Algae: An Observational Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Preparation of Edible Algae Extracts
2.2. Analysis of Nitrate (NO3−) and Nitrite (NO2−)
2.3. Analysis of Iodine
2.4. Percentage Contribution to ADI for NO3− and NO2− Levels
2.5. Percentage Contribution to the UL for Iodine
2.6. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Wu, J.Y.; Tso, R.; Teo, H.S.; Haldar, S. The utility of algae as sources of high value nutritional ingredients, particularly for alternative/complementary proteins to improve human health. Front. Nutr. 2023, 10, 1277343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Figueroa, V.; Farfán, M.; Aguilera, J. Seaweeds as novel foods and source of culinary flavors. Food Rev. Int. 2023, 39, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pina-Pérez, M.C.; Brück, W.M.; Brück, T.; Beyrer, M. Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods. In The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness; Elsevier: London, UK, 2019; pp. 103–137. [Google Scholar]
- Ashworth, A.; Bescos, R. Dietary nitrate and blood pressure: Evolution of a new nutrient? Nutr. Res. Rev. 2017, 30, 208–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bondonno, C.P.; Zhong, L.; Bondonno, N.P.; Sim, M.; Blekkenhorst, L.C.; Liu, A.; Rajendra, A.; Pokharel, P.; Erichsen, D.W.; Neubauer, O.; et al. Nitrate: The Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde of human health? Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2023, 135, 57–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pinaffi-Langley, A.C.d.C.; Dajani, R.M.; Prater, M.C.; Nguyen, H.V.M.; Vrancken, K.; Hays, F.; Hord, N.G. Perspective: Dietary nitrate from plant foods: A conditionally essential nutrient for cardiovascular health. Adv. Nutr. 2023, 15, 100158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burleigh, M.; Liddle, L.; Muggeridge, D.J.; Monaghan, C.; Sculthorpe, N.; Butcher, J.; Henriquez, F.; Easton, C. Dietary nitrate supplementation alters the oral microbiome but does not improve the vascular responses to an acute nitrate dose. Nitric Oxide 2019, 89, 54–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- du Toit, L.; Sundqvist, M.L.; Redondo-Rio, A.; Brookes, Z.; Casas-Agustench, P.; Hickson, M.; Benavente, A.; Montagut, G.; Weitzberg, E.; Gabaldón, T.; et al. The effect of dietary nitrate on the oral microbiome and salivary biomarkers in individuals with high blood pressure. J. Nutr. 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moran, S.P.; Rosier, B.T.; Henriquez, F.L.; Burleigh, M.C. The effects of nitrate on the oral microbiome: A systematic review investigating prebiotic potential. J. Oral Microbiol. 2024, 16, 2322228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vanhatalo, A.; Blackwell, J.R.; L’Heureux, J.E.; Williams, D.W.; Smith, A.; van der Giezen, M.; Winyard, P.G.; Kelly, J.; Jones, A.M. Nitrate-responsive oral microbiome modulates nitric oxide homeostasis and blood pressure in humans. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2018, 124, 21–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bryan, N.S.; Alexander, D.D.; Coughlin, J.R.; Milkowski, A.L.; Boffetta, P. Ingested nitrate and nitrite and stomach cancer risk: An updated review. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 3646–3665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS); Mortensen, A.; Aguilar, F.; Crebelli, R.; Di Domenico, A.; Dusemund, B.; Frutos, M.J.; Galtier, P.; Gott, D.; Gundert-Remy, U.; et al. Re-evaluation of sodium nitrate (E 251) and potassium nitrate (E 252) as food additives. Efsa J. 2017, 15, e04787. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Hord, N.G.; Tang, Y.; Bryan, N.S. Food sources of nitrates and nitrites: The physiologic context for potential health benefits. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 90, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bondonno, N.P.; Pokharel, P.; Bondonno, C.P.; Erichsen, D.W.; Zhong, L.; Schullehner, J.; Frederiksen, K.; Kyrø, C.; Hendriksen, P.F.; Hodgson, J.M.; et al. Source-specific nitrate intake and all-cause mortality in the Danish Diet, Cancer, and Health Study. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 2024, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Martín-León, V.; Paz, S.; D’Eufemia, P.A.; Plasencia, J.J.; Sagratini, G.; Marcantoni, G.; Navarro-Romero, M.; Gutiérrez, Á.J.; Hardisson, A.; Rubio-Armendáriz, C. Human exposure to toxic metals (Cd, Pb, Hg) and nitrates (NO3−) from seaweed consumption. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 6934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bryan, N.S.; Grisham, M.B. Methods to detect nitric oxide and its metabolites in biological samples. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2007, 43, 645–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lobban, C.S.; Harrison, P.J. Seaweed Ecology and Physiology; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1994. [Google Scholar]
- Liao, M.-L.; Seib, P.A. Chemistry of L-ascorbic acid related to foods. Food Chem. 1988, 30, 289–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS); Mortensen, A.; Aguilar, F.; Crebelli, R.; Di Domenico, A.; Dusemund, B.; Frutos, M.J.; Galtier, P.; Gott, D.; Gundert-Remy, U.; et al. Re-evaluation of potassium nitrite (E 249) and sodium nitrite (E 250) as food additives. Efsa J. 2017, 15, e04786. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Edwards, D.; Fletcher, K.; Rowlands, E. Antagonism between perchlorate, iodide, thiocyanate, and nitrate for secretion in human saliva analogy with the iodide trap of the thyroid. Lancet 1954, 263, 498–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farebrother, J.; Zimmermann, M.B.; Andersson, M. Excess iodine intake: Sources, assessment, and effects on thyroid function. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2019, 1446, 44–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for iodine. EFSA J. 2014, 12, 3660. [Google Scholar]
- Blikra, M.J.; Henjum, S.; Aakre, I. Iodine from brown algae in human nutrition, with an emphasis on bioaccessibility, bioavailability, chemistry, and effects of processing: A systematic review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2022, 21, 1517–1536. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pinto, E.; Almeida, A.A.; Aguiar, A.A.; Ferreira, I.M. Comparison between the mineral profile and nitrate content of microgreens and mature lettuces. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2015, 37, 38–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fecher, P.A.; Goldmann, I.; Nagengast, A. Determination of iodine in food samples by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry after alkaline extraction. J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 1998, 13, 977–982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gaudry, A.; Zeroual, S.; Cherkaoui el Moursli, R.; Guessous, A.; Chouak, A.; Mouradi, A.; Givernaud, T.; Moskura, M.; Delmas, R. Neutron activation analysis applied to the study of heavy metal marine pollution observed through bioaccumulation in macroscopic algae near El Jadida, Morocco. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. 2007, 271, 165–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khan, M.I.; Shin, J.H.; Kim, J.D. The promising future of microalgae: Current status, challenges, and optimization of a sustainable and renewable industry for biofuels, feed, and other products. Microb. Cell Factories 2018, 17, 36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wells, M.L.; Potin, P.; Craigie, J.S.; Raven, J.A.; Merchant, S.S.; Helliwell, K.E.; Smith, A.G.; Camire, M.E.; Brawley, S.H. Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: Revisiting our understanding. J. Appl. Phycol. 2017, 29, 949–982. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- European Commission. Regulation (EU) No 1258/2011 of 2 December 2011 amending Regulation (EC) No. 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels for nitrates in foodstuffs. Off. J. Eur. Union L 2011, 320, 15–17. [Google Scholar]
- Signore, A.; Bell, L.; Santamaria, P.; Wagstaff, C.; Van Labeke, M.-C. Red light is effective in reducing nitrate concentration in rocket by increasing nitrate reductase activity, and contributes to increased total glucosinolates content. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Agricultural Products, Food and Drink (Amendment) (EU Exit) Regulations. Statutory Instruments, 2020(1661). 2020. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2020/1661/pdfs/uksi_20201661_en.pdf (accessed on 7 February 2024).
- Zhong, L.; Blekkenhorst, L.C.; Bondonno, N.P.; Sim, M.; Woodman, R.J.; Croft, K.D.; Lewis, J.R.; Hodgson, J.M.; Bondonno, C.P. A food composition database for assessing nitrate intake from plant-based foods. Food Chem. 2022, 394, 133411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- MacArtain, P.; Gill, C.I.; Brooks, M.; Campbell, R.; Rowland, I.R. Nutritional value of edible seaweeds. Nutr. Rev. 2007, 65, 535–543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Public Health England. The Eatwell Guide: Helping You Eat a Healthy, Balanced Diet; Public Health England: London, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Wada, K.; Nakamura, K.; Tamai, Y.; Tsuji, M.; Sahashi, Y.; Watanabe, K.; Ohtsuchi, S.; Yamamoto, K.; Ando, K.; Nagata, C. Seaweed intake and blood pressure levels in healthy pre-school Japanese children. Nutr. J. 2011, 10, 83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wada, K.; Tsuji, M.; Nakamura, K.; Oba, S.; Nishizawa, S.; Yamamoto, K.; Watanabe, K.; Ando, K.; Nagata, C. Effect of dietary nori (dried laver) on blood pressure in young Japanese children: An intervention study. J. Epidemiol. 2021, 31, 37–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Yabuki, Y.; Mori, E.; Tamura, G. Nitrite reductase in the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis. Agric. Biol. Chem. 1985, 49, 3061–3062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aires, A.; Carvalho, R.; Rosa, E.A.; Saavedra, M.J. Effects of agriculture production systems on nitrate and nitrite accumulation on baby-leaf salads. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 1, 3–7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bahadoran, Z.; Mirmiran, P.; Jeddi, S.; Azizi, F.; Ghasemi, A.; Hadaegh, F. Nitrate and nitrite content of vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, dairy products, meats and processed meats. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2016, 51, 93–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bescos, R.; Rollason, M.L.; Davies, T.S.; Casas-Agustench, P. Content of nitrate and nitrite in commercial and self-made beetroot juices and the effect of storage temperature. Food Sci. Nutr. 2023, 11, 6376–6383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Public Health England. Composition of Foods Integrated Dataset (CoFID): McCance and Widdowson’s Composition of Foods Integrated Dataset on the Nutrient Content of the UK Food Supply; Public Health England: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Andersen, S.; Noahsen, P.; Rex, K.F.; Florian-Sørensen, H.C.; Mulvad, G. Iodine in edible seaweed, its absorption, dietary use, and relation to iodine nutrition in Arctic people. J. Med. Food 2019, 22, 421–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aquaron, R.; Delange, F.; Marchal, P.; Lognoné, V.; Ninane, L. Bioavailability of seaweed iodine in human beings. Cell. Mol. Biol. 2002, 48, 563–569. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Combet, E.; Ma, Z.F.; Cousins, F.; Thompson, B.; Lean, M.E. Low-level seaweed supplementation improves iodine status in iodine-insufficient women. Br. J. Nutr. 2014, 112, 753–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailey, S.J.; Blackwell, J.R.; Wylie, L.J.; Emery, A.; Taylor, E.; Winyard, P.G.; Jones, A.M. Influence of iodide ingestion on nitrate metabolism and blood pressure following short-term dietary nitrate supplementation in healthy normotensive adults. Nitric Oxide 2017, 63, 13–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Filippini, M.; Baldisserotto, A.; Menotta, S.; Fedrizzi, G.; Rubini, S.; Gigliotti, D.; Valpiani, G.; Buzzi, R.; Manfredini, S.; Vertuani, S. Heavy metals and potential risks in edible seaweed on the market in Italy. Chemosphere 2021, 263, 127983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhou, H.; Yang, W.-T.; Zhou, X.; Liu, L.; Gu, J.-F.; Wang, W.-L.; Zou, J.-L.; Tian, T.; Peng, P.-Q.; Liao, B.-H. Accumulation of heavy metals in vegetable species planted in contaminated soils and the health risk assessment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Racine, P.; Marley, A.; Froehlich, H.E.; Gaines, S.D.; Ladner, I.; MacAdam-Somer, I.; Bradley, D. A case for seaweed aquaculture inclusion in US nutrient pollution management. Mar. Policy 2021, 129, 104506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Illera-Vives, M.; Labandeira, S.S.; Fernández-Labrada, M.; López-Mosquera, M.E. Agricultural uses of seaweed. In Sustainable Seaweed Technologies; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 591–612. [Google Scholar]
Package Label | Species | Colour | Type | Origin on the Label | Habitat | Date of Packaging | Best Before Date | Sample ID |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100% organic dulse (dried), The Cornish Seaweed Company | Palmaria palmata | Red | Macroalgae | Cornwall, United Kingdom | Marine | Unknown | 05.24 | D1 |
100% pure dulse flakes (dried), Mara seaweed | Palmaria palmata | Red | Macroalgae | Scotland | Marine (hand-harvested from pure cold waters) | 06.06.22 | 11.24 | D2 |
Pepper dulse (fresh), The Irish Seaweed Company | Osmundea pinnatifida | Red | Macroalgae | Unknown | Marine | Unknown | Unknown | PD1 |
Japanese nori (dried), Clearspring | Porphyra yezoensis | Red | Macroalgae | Japan | Marine (cultivated in the sheltered bays around the Japanese coastline) | 17.12.21 | 16.12.23 | N1 |
100% organic sea spaghetti (dried), The Cornish Seaweed Company | Himanthalia elongata | Brown | Macroalgae | Cornwall, United Kingdom | Marine | Unknown | 06.24 | SS1 |
Organic sea spaghetti (dried), Porto-Muiños Las Verduras del Mar | Himanthalia elongata | Brown | Macroalgae | Galician coast (Bay of Biscay and Portuguese waters), Spain | Marine (hand-harvested from its natural environment) | 28.05.21 | 05.24 | SS2 |
100% organic kelp (dried), The Cornish Seaweed Company | Laminaria digitata | Brown | Macroalgae | Cornwall, United Kingdom | Marine | Unknown | 11.23 | KE1 |
Kombu kelp (dried), The Irish Seaweed Company | Laminaria digitata | Brown | Macroalgae | Unknown | Marine | Unknown | 30.11.22 | KK1 |
Sweet kelp (Kombu Royale) (dried), The Irish Seaweed Company | Saccharina latissimi | Brown | Macroalgae | Northern Ireland | Marine | Unknown | 30.11.22 | SK1 |
Organic wakame (dried), Porto-Muiños Las Verduras del Mar | Undaria pinnatifida | Brown | Macroalgae | Spain | Marine | 26.05.21 | 05.24 | W1 |
Organic Atlantic wakame (dried), Clearspring | Undaria pinnatifida | Brown | Macroalgae | European | Marine | 21.12.21 | 31.12.23 | W2 |
Kombu (dried), Mara seaweed | Laminaria digitata | Brown | Macroalgae | Scotland | Marine (hand-harvested from pure cold water) | 06.06.22 | 11.24 | KO1 |
Kombu powder, 100% brown kelp (dried, powder), Mara seaweed | Laminaria digitata | Brown | Macroalgae | Scotland and Ireland | Marine | 30.05.22 | 10.24 | KO2 |
Japanese Hokkaido kombu (dried), Clearspring | Laminaria japonica | Brown | Macroalgae | Japan | Marine (harvested in the luscious waters of the island of Hokkaido) | 24.01.22 | 24.02.25 | KO3 |
Japanese arame (dried), Clearspring | Eisenia bicyclis | Brown | Macroalgae | Japan | Marine | 16.06.21 | 30.06.23 | A1 |
Egg wrack (dried), The Irish Seaweed Company | Ascophyllum nodosum | Brown | Macroalgae | Northern Ireland | Marine | Unknown | 30.11.22 | EG1 |
Bladderwrack (dried), The Irish Seaweed Company | Fucus vesiculosus | Brown | Macroalgae | Northern Ireland | Marine | Unknown | 30.11.22 | B1 |
100% organic ocean greens (dried), The Cornish Seaweed Company | Ulva sp. | Green | Macroalgae | Cornwall, United Kingdom | Marine | Unknown | 06.24 | U1 |
Dunaliella salina (powder), Green Heart Store | Dunaliella salina | Green | Microalgae | Unknown | Cultivated in water with a very high salt content | Unknown | 04.23 | DS1 |
Organic Spirulina (powder), BuyWholefoodsOnline | Arthrospira platensis | Blue-green | Microalgae | China | 16.06.22 | 21.06.23 | S1 | |
Organic Spirulina (powder), Naturya | Arthrospira platensis | Blue-green | Microalgae | Non-European | Freshwater pools under warm sunlight | Unknown | 01.24 | S2 |
Organic Chlorella (powder cracked cell wall), Health Essentials Direct | Chlorella | Green | Microalgae | Non-European | Freshwater * | 18.02.20 | 03.24 | C1 |
Organic Chlorella (powder), BuyWholefoodsOnline | Chlorella | Green | Microalgae | China | Freshwater * | 20.04.22 | 22.05.25 | C2 |
Sample ID | NO3− (mg/kg) | NO2− (mg/kg) | Iodine (mg/kg) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Macroalgae | ||||
Dulse (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | D1 | 1303.33 ± 8.50 a | 0.86 ± 0.17 b | 61.03 ± 13.18 c |
Dulse (Mara seaweed) | D2 | 1069.33 ± 5.77 d | 0.47 ± 0.12 b | 158.53 ± 5.16 c |
Pepper dulse fresh (The Irish Seaweed Company) | PD1 | 185.00 ± 1.73 e | 0.00 ± 0.00 f | 297.97 ± 25.01 c |
Nori (Clearspring) | N1 | 17,191.33 ± 980.89 g | 3.64 ± 2.38 g | 16.30 ± 0.56 c |
Sea spaghetti (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | SS1 | 57.33 ± 3.21 e | 0.32 ± 0.07 b | 74.40 ± 11.65 c |
Sea spaghetti (Porto-Muiños Las Verduras del Mar) | SS2 | 111.33 ± 13.20 e | 0.39 ± 0.02 b | 63.90 ± 4.93 c |
Kelp (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | KE1 | 858.67 ± 19.73 h | 0.34 ± 0.01 b | 6569.87 ± 412.26 g |
Kombu kelp (The Irish Seaweed Company) | KK1 | 197.00 ± 1.73 e | 0.27 ± 0.05 b | 1978.93 ± 211.75 i |
Sweet kelp (Kombu Royale) (The Irish Seaweed Company) | SK1 | 3183.00 ± 147.00 g | 0.48 ± 0.02 b | 3882.07 ± 214.96 j |
Wakame (Porto-Muiños Las Verduras del Mar) | W1 | 513.67 ± 21.29 k | 1.55 ± 0.17 b | 160.17 ± 1.76 c |
Wakame (Clearspring) | W2 | 178.67 ± 4.04 e | 0.68 ± 0.02 b | 99.77 ± 2.78 c |
Kombu (Mara seaweed) | KO1 | 188.00 ± 1.73 e | 0.40 ± 0.06 b | 4061.30 ± 271.66 l |
Kombu powder (Mara seaweed) | KO2 | 4475.33 ± 42.36 g | 0.79 ± 0.06 b | 3261.70 ± 110.65 m |
Kombu (Clearspring) | KO3 | 7.33 ± 2.52 e | 0.22 ± 0.03 b | 2933.37 ± 154.19 n |
Arame (Clearspring) | A1 | 89.67 ± 16.07 e | 0.49 ± 0.01 b | 750.87 ± 41.83 g |
Egg wrack (The Irish Seaweed Company) | EG1 | 401.00 ± 29.72 o | 0.34 ± 0.12 b | 1579.60 ± 222.63 p |
Bladderwrack (The Irish Seaweed Company) | B1 | 88.33 ± 7.09 e | 0.38 ± 0.07 b | 165.83 ± 7.10 c |
Ulva sp. (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | U1 | 220.00 ± 27.50 o | 0.33 ± 0.10 b | 88.87 ± 0.99 c |
Microalgae | ||||
Dunaliella salina (Green Heart Store) | DS1 | 223.00 ± 21.93 o | 0.35 ± 0.06 b | 79.97 ± 0.76 c |
Spirulina powder (BuyWholefoodsOnline) | S1 | 23.00 ± 4.00 e | 7.02 ± 0.13 q | 1.63 ± 0.06 c |
Spirulina powder (Naturya) | S2 | 8.33 ± 3.06 e | 6.26 ± 0.08 r | 1.07 ± 0.12 c |
Chlorella powder (Health Essentials Direct) | C1 | 15.33 ± 3.79 e | 1.61 ± 0.07 b | 2.20 ± 0.50 c |
Chlorella powder (BuyWholefoodsOnline) | C2 | 9.00 ± 2.00 e | 0.40 ± 0.06 b | 3.17 ± 3.03 c |
Sample ID | NO3− % Contribution to ADI (5 g Serving) † | NO2− % Contribution to ADI (5 g Serving) † | Iodine % Contribution to UL (5 g Serving) ‡ | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Macroalgae | ||||
Dulse (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | D1 | 2.52 ± 0.02 | 0.09 ± 0.02 | 50.86 ± 10.98 |
Dulse (Mara seaweed) | D2 | 2.06 ± 0.01 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 132.11 ± 4.30 |
Pepper dulse (The Irish Seaweed Company) | PD1 | 0.36 ± 0.00 | 0.00 ± 0.00 | 248.31 ± 20.84 |
Nori (Clearspring) | N1 | 33.19 ± 1.89 | 0.37 ± 0.24 | 13.58 ± 0.46 |
Sea spaghetti (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | SS1 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 62.00 ± 9.71 |
Sea spaghetti (Porto-Muiños Las Verduras del Mar) | SS2 | 0.21 ± 0.03 | 0.04 ± 0.00 | 53.25 ± 4.11 |
Kelp (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | KE1 | 1.66 ± 0.04 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 5474.89 ± 343.55 |
Kombu kelp (The Irish Seaweed Company) | KK1 | 0.38 ± 0.00 | 0.03 ± 0.00 | 1649.11 ± 176.46 |
Sweet kelp (Kombu Royale) (The Irish Seaweed Company) | SK1 | 6.14 ± 0.28 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 3235.06 ± 179.13 |
Wakame (Porto-Muiños Las Verduras del Mar) | W1 | 0.99 ± 0.04 | 0.16 ± 0.02 | 133.47 ± 1.47 |
Wakame (Clearspring) | W2 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.07 ± 0.00 | 83.14 ± 2.32 |
Kombu (Mara seaweed) | KO1 | 0.36 ± 0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 3382.42 ± 226.38 |
Kombu powder (Mara seaweed) | KO2 | 8.64 ± 0.08 | 0.08 ± 0.01 | 2718.08 ± 92.21 |
Kombu (Clearspring) | KO3 | 0.01 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 2444.47 ± 128.49 |
Arame (Clearspring) | A1 | 0.17 ± 0.03 | 0.05 ± 0.00 | 625.72 ± 34.86 |
Egg wrack (The Irish Seaweed Company) | EG1 | 0.77 ± 0.06 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 1316.33 ± 185.52 |
Bladderwrack (The Irish Seaweed Company) | B1 | 0.17 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 138.19 ± 5.92 |
Ulva sp. (The Cornish Seaweed Company) | U1 | 0.42 ± 0.05 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 74.06 ± 0.82 |
Microalgae | ||||
Dunaliella salina (Green Heart Store) | DS1 | 0.43 ± 0.04 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 66.64 ± 0.63 |
Spirulina powder (BuyWholefoodsOnline) | S1 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.72 ± 0.01 | 1.36 ± 0.05 |
Spirulina powder (Naturya) | S2 | 0.02 ± 0.01 | 0.64 ± 0.01 | 0.89 ± 0.10 |
Chlorella powder (Health Essentials Direct) | C1 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.16 ± 0.01 | 1.83 ± 0.42 |
Chlorella powder (BuyWholefoodsOnline) | C2 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 2.64 ± 2.52 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Casas-Agustench, P.; Hayter, J.M.; Ng, O.S.B.; Hallewell, L.V.; Clark, N.J.; Bescos, R. Nitrate, Nitrite, and Iodine Concentrations in Commercial Edible Algae: An Observational Study. Foods 2024, 13, 2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162615
Casas-Agustench P, Hayter JM, Ng OSB, Hallewell LV, Clark NJ, Bescos R. Nitrate, Nitrite, and Iodine Concentrations in Commercial Edible Algae: An Observational Study. Foods. 2024; 13(16):2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162615
Chicago/Turabian StyleCasas-Agustench, Patricia, Jade M. Hayter, Odelia S. B. Ng, Lauren V. Hallewell, Nathaniel J. Clark, and Raul Bescos. 2024. "Nitrate, Nitrite, and Iodine Concentrations in Commercial Edible Algae: An Observational Study" Foods 13, no. 16: 2615. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13162615