Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis): A Journey through Sustainability, Processing, and Utilization
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Oil Palm Tree
3. Features of Palm Oil and Its Bioactivity
Bioactive Compound | Content Range | Health Benefits | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Carotenoids | 600–1000 ppm (E. guineensis) 4000+ ppm (E. oleifera) | Provitamin A activity | [49,50,51,52] |
Protection against cardiovascular disease | [38,51,53,54] | ||
Anticancer activity | [51,55,56,57,58,59] | ||
Antioxidant | [40,51,55] | ||
Phytosterols | 100–200 ppm | Phytosterols help reduce LDL cholesterol levels | [60,61] |
Anticancer characteristics | [62] | ||
Tocotrienols and Tocopherols | 600–1000 ppm | Vitamin E activity | [57,63,64,65] |
Reduces the risk of high cholesterol, risk of developing cancer, cardiovascular diseases, brain disorders and increases immunity | [57,63,65,66,67] | ||
Antioxidant | [44,64,65,68,69,70] | ||
Phenolic acids | 10–50 ppm | Anti-inflammatory | [71,72] |
Phospholipids | 10–50 ppm | Improves nutrient absorption and digestion | [63,73] |
Energy endurance | [74,75] | ||
Brain development | [76,77] | ||
Squalene | 200–500 ppm | Anticancer activity | [78] |
Protection against cardiovascular disease | [79] | ||
Delay in the production of cholesterol | [80,81] | ||
Saturated fatty acids | Palmitic acid: Approximately 44% in E. guineensis and 24% in E. oleifera Stearic acid: Approximately 5% in E. guineensis [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25] | Palmitic: essential fatty acids in cell membrane, transportation, secretary lipids and part of the human body and energy production | [25] |
Vegetable palmitic acid has a negligible effect on blood cholesterol levels | [12,13,14,15,19,20,21,22,23,24,25] | ||
Unsaturated fatty acids | Oleic acid: Approximately 40% in E. guineensis, 47–69% in E. oleifera, and 55% in interspecific hybrids Linoleic acid: Approximately 10% in E. guineensis, 2–19% in E. oleifera, and 11% in interspecific hybrids | Modulates physiological functions, inhibits cancer proliferation, reduces inflammation, reduces blood pressure and improves wound healing | [6,82] |
Beneficial effects on anti-inflammatory and autoimmune diseases | [6,12,13,14,15,19,20,21,22,23] |
4. Processing of Crude Palm Oil
5. Utilization of Palm Oil
6. Impact and Sustainability of the Palm Oil Chain
Coverage | Certifications/ Legislation | Key Aspects | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
International Certifications | RSPO—Round Table on Sustainable Palm Oil | Behave ethically and transparently Operate legally and respect rights Optimize productivity, efficiency, positive impacts and resilience Respect Community and human rights and deliver benefits Support smallholder inclusion Respect workers’ rights and conditions Protect, conserve and enhance ecosystems and the environment | [133,134] |
ISCC—International Sustainability and Carbon Certification | Certification of palm oil used as a feedstock for biofuels Preservation of natural areas characterized by their high biodiversity or that can store carbon (High Conservation Value = HCV) Application of good agricultural practices, for example, to maintain soil fertility or preserve water quality and to reduce the use of pesticides Safe working conditions are maintained, for example, through employee training and the provision of appropriate protective clothing Compliance with labor and human rights laws and ensuring responsible working conditions that promote health Compliance with applicable laws and regulations Adherence to good management practices | [136,137,139] | |
POIG—Palm Oil Innovation Group | Creates and promotes innovations in the palm oil industry Support the RSPO principle Seeks the adoption of responsible palm oil production practices by key supply chain participants through the development and sharing of a reliable and verifiable benchmark | [140] | |
RSB—Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials; SAN—Sustainable Agriculture Networks | Ensure the inevitable transformation to a biocircular economy is environmentally sustainable and socially fair. Transforming agriculture for the greater good of all Positive change across agricultural value chains and working to create lasting impact | [136,137,141,142] | |
Malaysia | MSPO—Malaysia Sustainable Palm oil | Management commitment and responsibility Transparency Compliance with legal requirements Social responsibility, safety and employment conditions Environment, natural resources, biodiversity and ecosystem services Best practice Development of new plantings | [133,134] |
MPOB—Malaysia Palm Oil Board | To enhance and support the well-being of the Malaysian oil palm industry through the dissemination of timely, reliable and comprehensive data and economic research findings as well as market information To conduct research on the economics of production, downstream processing, and marketing of the Malaysian palm oil industry. To ensure compliance with conditions imposed on the license regarding the registration of contracts and submission of monthly statements (PL forms). To disseminate comprehensive, accurate and timely industry and market information. To provide inputs for the establishment of the national palm oil development policy. | [143] | |
Indonesia | ISPO—Indonesia Sustainable Palm Oil | Plantation Management Protection of the utilization of Primary Forest and Peatlands Environmental Management Responsibility for Workers Responsibility for Social and Economic Empowerment Continuous Business Improvement | [133,134] |
Brazil | Federal Law No. 12,651/2012 | Establishes general rules on the Protection of Native Vegetation, including areas where oil palm can be cultivated; forest exploitation; the supply of forest raw materials; the control of the origin of forest products; the control and prevention of forest fires, and the provision of economic and financial instruments to achieve its objectives. | [144] |
Decree n°7172/2010 | Agroecological zoning of oil palm cultivation in Brazil to be applied from the 2010/2011 harvest Guide the expansion of Brazilian palm production on a technical-scientific basis, to guarantee sustainability in its economic, social and environmental aspects. Offer sustainable economic alternatives to rural producers in the region and provide a basis for planning sustainable land use following current legislation. Promote land use planning in the region’s anthropized areas following each state’s Ecological and Economic Zoning. Provide a basis for planning development hubs in rural areas that align with the public policies of the different levels of government. | [145] | |
European Union | Regulation (EU) 2018/841 | Relates to reducing greenhouse gas emissions from land use activities and achieving the long-term climate targets of the Paris Agreement Deals with the European Union’s strategy to combat deforestation and promote the sustainable use of agricultural products Establishes requirements to ensure that palm oil used in the EU does not contribute to deforestation and forest degradation | [146] |
United States | Lacey Act | Deals with the Importation of Products: Prohibits all trade in plants and plant products from illegal sources in any state of the United States and other countries. Requires importers to declare the country of origin and species name of all plants contained in their products | [147] |
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Alhaji, A.M.; Almeida, E.S.; Carneiro, C.R.; da Silva, C.A.S.; Monteiro, S.; Coimbra, J.S.d.R. Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis): A Journey through Sustainability, Processing, and Utilization. Foods 2024, 13, 2814. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172814
Alhaji AM, Almeida ES, Carneiro CR, da Silva CAS, Monteiro S, Coimbra JSdR. Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis): A Journey through Sustainability, Processing, and Utilization. Foods. 2024; 13(17):2814. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172814
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlhaji, Adamu Muhammad, Erislene S. Almeida, Camila Rodrigues Carneiro, César Augusto Sodré da Silva, Simone Monteiro, and Jane Sélia dos Reis Coimbra. 2024. "Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis): A Journey through Sustainability, Processing, and Utilization" Foods 13, no. 17: 2814. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172814