Optimizing the Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Polyphenols, Lipids, and Alpha-Tocopherol) from Almond Okara to Unlock Its Potential as Functional Food
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals and Reagents
2.2. Sample Preparation: Production of Almond Okara
2.3. Dry Matter Determination of Okara
2.4. Extraction Procedures and Experimental Design
Extraction Kinetics: Effect of Extraction Time on Total Polyphenols’ Yield
- Modeling of the kinetics of solid–liquid extraction: Peleg model
- -
- Effect of the okara-to-solvent ratio on the total polyphenol yield
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- Effect of ethanol–water mixtures at different percentages as well as extraction temperatures on the phenolic compounds content and antiradical activity of the extracts
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- Optimization of phenolic compound extraction from okara: experimental design
2.5. Determination of the Total Polyphenol and Tannin Yields in Aqueous and Ethanolic Extracts
- -
- Determination of the total polyphenol yield (YTP)
- -
- Determination of the tannin yield (YT) with hide powder method
2.6. Determination of the Total Flavonoid Yield (YTF) in Aqueous and Ethanolic Extracts
2.7. Antioxidant Activity
- -
- Evaluation of total antioxidant activity by the phosphomolybdenum method
- -
- DPPH free radical-scavenging capacity
2.8. Alpha-Tocopherol Quantification
- -
- Preparation of the sample
- -
- Instrumentation and Chromatographic Conditions
2.9. Analysis of Triglycerides
- -
- Preparation of the sample
- -
- Chromatographic system and mass spectrometry
2.10. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Extraction Kinetics: Effect of the Extraction Time on Total Polyphenol Yield
3.2. Modeling of Solid–Liquid Extraction Kinetic Parameters for TP Yield from Okara
3.3. Solid-to-Solvent Ratio Effect on Total Polyphenol Yield
3.4. Polyphenol Recovery as a Function of Temperature and Ethanol Percentage
3.5. The Effect of Extraction Temperature and Solvent Mixture on Tannin and Flavonoid Contents
3.6. The Effect of Extraction Temperature and Solvent Mixture on the Antioxidant Activity of Okara Extracts
3.7. Experimental Design
3.8. Alpha-Tocopherol Quantification
3.9. Analysis of Triglycerides
4. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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20 °C | 40 °C | 60 °C | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Water | EtOH 25% | EtOH 50% | Water | EtOH 25% | EtOH 50% | Water | EtOH 25% | EtOH 50% | |
K1 | 90.97 | 50.15 | 36.49 | 58.33 | 27.25 | 24.32 | 37.79 | 22.70 | 29.00 |
K2 | 132.29 | 196.73 | 237.92 | 161.02 | 263.06 | 361.30 | 212.05 | 424.29 | 534.94 |
NMRSD% | 2.5 | 2.8 | 3.9 | 3.5 | 1.5 | 5.6 | 2.8 | 2.4 | 2.7 |
Run | YTP (exp) | YTP (Model) | YT (exp) | YT (Model) | YTF (exp) | YTF (Model) | TAC (exp) | TAC (Model) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 108.9 | 105.5 | 66.9 | 43.7 | 66.5 | 68.2 | 163.3 | 150.8 |
2 | 172.9 | 168.7 | 128.9 | 121.7 | 115.7 | 117.1 | 230.6 | 237.5 |
3 | 205.6 | 192.4 | 166.9 | 166.2 | 272.6 | 271.6 | 246.4 | 263.6 |
4 | 356.7 | 362 | 311.2 | 318.2 | 340.3 | 338.9 | 304.6 | 350.3 |
5 | 138.7 | 131.4 | 54.9 | 65.8 | 81.9 | 80.7 | 396.4 | 383.3 |
6 | 251.7 | 262.8 | 131.5 | 143.8 | 180.1 | 178.6 | 540.6 | 546.9 |
7 | 283.2 | 285.3 | 189.6 | 188.3 | 335 | 331.1 | 618.6 | 635.1 |
8 | 521.7 | 523 | 331.9 | 340.3 | 552.7 | 548.5 | 789.4 | 789.7 |
9 | 255.6 | 253.9 | 178.7 | 173.5 | 262.2 | 241.8 | 431.4 | 420.8 |
10 | 253.7 | 253.9 | 172.6 | 173.5 | 262.6 | 241.8 | 436.2 | 420.8 |
11 | 255.1 | 253.9 | 180 | 173.5 | 255.3 | 241.8 | 430.8 | 420.8 |
12 | 177.5 | 178.7 | 111.4 | 116 | 169.3 | 187.9 | 341.3 | 358.2 |
13 | 363.1 | 329.1 | 260.9 | 231 | 275.8 | 295.8 | 490.7 | 483.4 |
14 | 152.9 | 167.1 | 58.6 | 93.7 | 122.7 | 111.2 | 323.2 | 329.6 |
15 | 325.9 | 340.7 | 238.9 | 253.3 | 373.1 | 372.5 | 570.7 | 511.9 |
16 | 188.4 | 207.2 | 144.9 | 162.4 | 185.4 | 198.9 | 232.4 | 250.6 |
17 | 304.6 | 300.6 | 221.5 | 184.6 | 259.9 | 248.7 | 570.5 | 591 |
NMRSD % | 0.029 | 0.062 | 0.026 | 0.026 |
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Taha, M.; Dimitrov, K.; Samaillie, J.; Caux, B.; Sahpaz, S.; Blanchemain, N.; West, C.; Rivière, C. Optimizing the Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Polyphenols, Lipids, and Alpha-Tocopherol) from Almond Okara to Unlock Its Potential as Functional Food. Foods 2024, 13, 2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172828
Taha M, Dimitrov K, Samaillie J, Caux B, Sahpaz S, Blanchemain N, West C, Rivière C. Optimizing the Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Polyphenols, Lipids, and Alpha-Tocopherol) from Almond Okara to Unlock Its Potential as Functional Food. Foods. 2024; 13(17):2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172828
Chicago/Turabian StyleTaha, Mariam, Krasimir Dimitrov, Jennifer Samaillie, Benjamin Caux, Sevser Sahpaz, Nicolas Blanchemain, Caroline West, and Céline Rivière. 2024. "Optimizing the Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Polyphenols, Lipids, and Alpha-Tocopherol) from Almond Okara to Unlock Its Potential as Functional Food" Foods 13, no. 17: 2828. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13172828