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Review

The Aroma of Non-Fermented and Fermented Dry-Cured Meat Products: Savory and Toasted Odors

by
Lei Li
,
Carmela Belloch
and
Mónica Flores
*
Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA-CSIC), Agustín Escardino Avenue 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Foods 2025, 14(5), 881; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050881
Submission received: 15 November 2024 / Revised: 18 February 2025 / Accepted: 3 March 2025 / Published: 5 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Flavor Chemistry in Meat, Poultry and Seafood: Safety Control and Quality Assessment)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Volatile chemicals containing nitrogen and sulfur as key odors in dry-cured meat products have extremely low odor thresholds. These compounds play an important part in the overall uniqueness and characteristic flavor of dry-cured meat products, contributing to savory and toasted aroma sensations, respectively. In this review, we define the different volatiles and aroma compounds related to the flavor of dry-cured meat products. Moreover, the main differences regarding volatiles, aromas, and flavor profiles from non-fermented and fermented dry-cured meat products are summarized. Comparisons using the same volatile extraction techniques revealed that dry loins contained the most sulfur- and nitrogen-containing compounds, while complex flavor and aroma compounds in fermented sausages were greatly impacted by the fermentation process. The screening and quantification of savory and toasted odors showed that methionol, dimethyl sulfide, and 2-methyl-3-(methylthio)furan were mainly reported in non-fermented products, whereas pyrazines were mainly detected in fermented meat products. Finally, the different mechanisms in the generation of savory and toasted aromas, including chemical reactions and biochemical reactions by microorganisms (bacteria, yeast, and molds), are discussed. These discussions will help to better understand the complex flavor of dry-cured meat products.

1. Introduction

Dry-cured meat products are widely consumed because they are tasty and easy to eat, mainly in Europe and Mediterranean countries as well as in Asian countries (China and Korea). Non-fermented dry-cured meat products including dry-cured ham and dry-cured loins are produced using whole muscle pieces. Fermented dry-cured meat products and fermented sausages go through a fermentation step mediated by microbial starters. Fermented sausages are produced by comminuting meat and fat and combining them with sugar, salt, spices, and curing chemicals to form a meat batter which is further inserted into casings [1]. The manufacturing of both types of products includes a dry-curing process. However, the aroma and specific odor notes of these products differ, especially regarding key odor notes of savory and toasted aromas, among many other odor notes that are present in the products. The presence of chemicals that produce savory (meaty) and toasted odors in meat products may result in an olfactory balance that produces the distinctive “cured” odor, as no other volatile ingredient is responsible for the special smell of “cured” meat. Considering this factor, there are not many studies regarding these odor notes; this review focuses on the key odor notes (savory and toasted) present in dry-cured meat products, based on their worldwide production and consumption. These compounds are mainly present in non-fermented and fermented products. Dry-cured ham and dry-cured loin are the most typical products of the non-fermented type, while dry-fermented sausages are categorized as fermented dry-cured meat products in the recent ISO 23854 (2021) “fermented meat products specification” [2]. Nevertheless, a new ISO standard for “Dry-cured ham specification” is under discussion, indicating the commercial impact of this product worldwide.
Non-fermented dry-cured meat products are frequently manufactured and consumed in Europe. For this reason, most scientific studies consider this region the main reference; with the increase in globalization and innovation, recent studies also show some development in Asian countries [3,4]. The physicochemical properties of these products, as well as their geographical area of origin and the pig breed used for manufacturing, are described in Table 1. The main difference between products is observed depending on the pig breed and drying time. The drying and ripening steps are represented together in the table as drying time, which fluctuates from 211 to 413 days for ham and 18 to 156 days for dry loins. The pH of non-fermented dry-cured meat products lies between 5.4 and 6.5 because they do not undergo a fermentation process led by lactic acid bacteria. In dry loins, microbial activity primarily occurs on the surface of the meat, and a long drying and ripening storage time results in a reduction in microbial activity, resulting in diminishing major aroma compounds. However, very few studies have reported this with the diversity of bacteria found in loins as shown in Table 1 [5,6].
It is essential to remark that several Asian authors have classified dry-cured ham as a fermented meat product [7,8,9]. However, European dry-cured hams are not considered fermented meat products. The differences among dry-cured ham consumption habits also show that Chinese dry-cured ham is used as a seasoning in Chinese cuisine [10] due to its salty, umami, and characteristic aroma. Therefore, it is used in cooking treatments to increase meaty and cooked ham notes [10]. On the other hand, European dry-cured ham has a characteristic flavor and it is a ready-to-eat product. It should be considered that the sensory attributes of dry-cured hams are impacted by many factors from animal production to processing [11]. In addition, the characteristics of sensory attributes depend on conditions during processing which are adapted to the type of raw material employed.
Table 1. Main characteristics of non-fermented dry-cured meat products from different geographical origins.
Table 1. Main characteristics of non-fermented dry-cured meat products from different geographical origins.
ProductGeographical AreaPig BreedPhysico-Chemical PropertiesMicrobial Counts (log cfu/g)
Drying Time (d)Moisture Content (%)Water Activity (aw)pHTMB aLABCN-StpYMEB
Ham [12]SpainWhite pig21122.8nr5.9nr b3.35.14.7(Y), 1.7(M)<1
Ham [13]SpainDomestic 36061.6nr6.2nrnrnrnrnr
Loin [14]SpainLarge White females Landrace and Pietrain
Males × Duroc 		4958.5nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [15]SpainIberian × Duroc 12033.9–38.6nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [16]SpainTorbiscal Iberian 100nr<0.9nrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [17]SpainLandrace × Large 15646.1–49.6nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [18]SpainLandrace × Large 1847nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [19]SpainTorbiscal Iberian 100nr<0.9nrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [20]SpainCommercial 40470.932nr2.8–3.32.2–2.8nrnrnr
Loin [21]SpainChato Murciano6041.9, 51.8nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [22]SpainCelta breed (Barcina line)9034.040.8415.8nrnrnrnrnr
Loin [23]SpainChato Murciano6046.01nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [24]SpainIberian77nr0.875–0.8835.5–5.7nrnrnrnrnr
Loin [25]Spain50% Iberian × Duroc pigs8742.29nrnrnrnrnrnrnr
Loin [26]SpainIberian8045.70.925.65.2nrnr4.4nr
Loin [5]SpainCommercial 5151.2–57.3nr5.5–5.65.34.15.45.0nr
Loin [27]SpainBerkshire; Landrace × Yorkshire × Duroc3059.6–53.2nr6.2–5.9nrnrnrnrnr
Loin [28]PolandPolish Large White2853.00.9296.0nrnrnrnrnr
Loin [29]PolandPuławska × Polish Landrace118nr0.938–0.9415.8–6.27.1–8.36.7–7.9nrnrnr
Loin [30]PolandPolish Large White × Polish Landrace nr52.5nr5.9nrnrnrnrnr
Loin [31]ChinaCommercial Chinese 1847.90.849nrnrnrnrnrnr
Jinhua Ham [32]ChinaLarge White × Landrace26331.9nr6.1nrnrnrnrnr
Ham [33]KoreaKorean native 41339.10.846.5nrnrnrnrnr
a Total mesophilic bacteria (TMB), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Gram-positive coagulase-negative staphylococci (CN-Stp), Enterobacteriaceae (EB), and yeasts and molds (YM). b nr: not reported.
The differences regarding the processing methods for producing fermented dry-cured meat products can vary greatly regarding raw material origins, spices, starter strains, casing, temperature, surface molds, smoking, etc. A compilation of the main features describing dry-cured fermented sausages from many parts of the globe is listed in Table 2. The most distinct sausage type originating in Europe is Sucuk, which is a type of Turkish sausage [34] made of beef. In contrast, most European fermented sausages are manufactured using lean and back fat from pork. Fermented sausages in southern Europe (Spain, Portugal, and Italy) are characterized by longer drying times in their manufacture, while shorter times, often less than a month, are used to produce sausages in northern Europe (Belgium and Norway) and Asian countries (China). Further differences between sausage manufacturers can be found concerning the duration of the drying time. Regarding physicochemical parameters, the pH of sausages is typically above 5.0, especially in southern European countries and China, although exceptionally lower values can be found in fermented sausages produced in northern European countries (Belgium). The pH of fermented sausages is related to the amount and type of added carbohydrates, the starter culture, and the fermentation conditions [35]. An additional significant feature of dry-fermented sausages, which can be kept for a long time due to their low aw values (0.90), is shelf-stability. Fermented sausages are usually produced with the aid of a bacterial starter usually composed of lactic acid bacteria and staphylococci (Table 2). The bacterial counts in fermented sausages range from 6 to 8 log cfu/g of LAB and 4 to 6 log cfu/g of CN-Stp. The 2-log range variation in the bacterial counts found in fermented meat products has been attributed to the use of different bacterial starters and differences in the production techniques [36]. Yeast and fungi naturally grow on the surface of fermented sausages; therefore, differences in the manufacturing processes have a large effect on yeast and fungi counts in fermented sausages [37]. Besides beneficial microbial strains, spoilage bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae) have been detected in most fermented sausages (Table 2). The detection of undesirable bacteria indicates a deteriorating process, which would negatively affect a sausage’s quality and safety.
Dry-cured meat products have outstanding flavor and palatability due to proteolysis, lipolysis, and the formation of flavor compounds. The main factors that give these products a unique flavor are the ripening conditions and the meat quality. The primary distinction between fermented and non-fermented dry-cured meat products is the fermentation of carbohydrates during the production of fermented dry-cured meat products because of the starter culture’s action on sugar [38]. The addition of carbohydrates among other ingredients (salt, curing salts, etc.) and the fermentation conditions are essential for selecting the microbiota that contributes to the flavor of fermented sausages [28]. The addition of spices is also crucial in the meat products’ aroma [1], as it contributes to differentiating the characteristics of aroma.
Table 2. Main characteristics of fermented dry-cured meat products from different geographical origins.
Table 2. Main characteristics of fermented dry-cured meat products from different geographical origins.
ProductsGeographical AreaPhysico-Chemical PropertiesMicrobial Counts (log cfu/g)
Drying Time (d)Moisture Content (%)Water Activity (aw)pHTMB a LAB CN-StpCP-StpECEBYM
Fuet [39]Spain53nr b0.6195.608.598.304.62nrnrnd cnr
Salchichón [40]Spain9030.620.7855.27nr7.614.52nrnrnrnr
Salchichón [41]Spain4831.380.895.888.388.26 6.784.89nr3.12nr
Chorizo [42]Spain4820.660.8215.588.598.17nrnrnrnr6.23
Galician chorizo [43]Spain30nr0.8306.138.558.516.38nrnr5.61nr
Dry-fermented sausages [44]Spain6240.60.8835.057.16.21.43.2nrnrnr
Smoked fermented sausages [45]Portugalnrnr0.8765.127.267.324.19nrnr0.860.88 (Y), nd (M)
Fermented sausages [46]Portugal30–40nr0.855.32nr6.475.59nr2.73ndnr
Sicilian salami [47]Italy9026.80.816.37nr7.116.11nrnr0.155.16 (Y)
Dry-fermented sausages [48]Italy30nr0.7945.774.58.05.6nrnr5.03.4 (Y)
Vallo di Diano [49]Italy3822.420.8016.18nr8.537.61nr6.551.954.93
Salame nostrano [50]Italy2123.960.8075.668.017.006.16nr6.024.18nr
Low-acid sausages [51]Italy100nr0.8745.57nr8.304.97nrnrnrnr
Felino-type sausages [52]Italy42nr0.9585.4nr7.50nr5.875.04<13.13 (Y)
Dry-fermented sausages [53]Italy28nr0.8754.92nr7.49nr5.624.06nrnr
Dry-fermented sausages [54]Italy60nr0.9065.77nr8.55nr6.592.343.16nr
Dry-fermented sausages [55]France60nr0.7995.32nr6.695.32nrnrnrnr
Belgian-type salami [56]Belgian21nr0.9254.818.718.715.91nr2.22nd1.58 (Y)
Boulogne sausages [56]Belgian28nr0.9184.748.178.365.29nr1.70nd3.02 (Y)
Salami [57]Norway28nr0.8295.28nr7.58nrnrnrnrnr
Suçuk [34]Turkey16nr0.8135.088.57 8.826.49nrnr2.03nr
Dry-fermented sausages [58]China18nr0.8745.437.906.766.48nrnrnrnr
Harbin dry sausages [59]China1225.540.7845.33nr6.825.84nrnrnrnr
Dong fermented pork (Nanx Wudl) [60]China22nr0.8775.22nr8.216.43nrnr3.21nr
Dry-fermented sausages [61]China23nrnr5.247.977.976.85nrnr5.254.82 (Y)
Dry-fermented sausages [62]China12nrnr5.51nr7.536.72nrnr5.52nr
a Total mesophilic bacteria (TMB), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Gram-positive coagulase-negative staphylococci (CN-Stp), Gram-positive coagulase-positive staphylococci (CP-Stp), enterococci (EC), Enterobacteriaceae (EB), and yeasts and molds (YM). b nr: not reported. c nd: not detected.

2. Volatile Chemical Composition of Dry-Cured Meat Products

Aroma precursors found in the formulation of meat products determine the volatile composition of the final products [63]. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are mainly produced during the dry-curing step by chemical or enzymatic reactions like Strecker degradation, Maillard reactions, lipolysis, proteolysis, and chemical or enzymatic oxidation in dry-cured meat products [64].
The identification of volatile compounds is necessary for the aroma profile characterization of dry-cured meat products [65]. However, the process used for VOC extraction has a significant impact on the characteristics and odor profile of dry-cured meat products. Studies using CAR/PDMS fiber and headspace–solid-phase micro-extraction/gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS) have enabled the comparison of the volatile profile of fermented and non-fermented dry-cured meat products (Figure 1). In plots where the compounds are classified by their chemical origin, alcohols make up a significant portion of the compounds in dry-cured ham and loins, whereas aldehyde VOCs are mostly found in fermented sausages. Dry loins (Figure 1C) contain 18 sulfur-containing and 7 nitrogen-containing compounds, whereas dry-cured ham (Figure 1A) and dry-fermented sausages (Figure 1E) have modest numbers of compounds. According to their most probable origin, several of the volatile chemicals identified in dry-cured ham products are due to lipid autooxidation, closely followed by amino acid degradation and esterase activity, as occurs in ham (Figure 1B). However, differences are found in Chinese Jinhua ham, which is characterized by odor-active compounds resulting from the breakdown of amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates through the Maillard reaction [66]. In addition, spices contribute to the aroma of dry-cured loins as much as carbohydrate fermentation. However, no clear origin has been found for numerous aroma compounds in dry-cured loins (Figure 1D). Finally, the main VOCs found in dry-fermented sausages originate from lipid autooxidation and amino acid degradation (Figure 1F).

3. Comparative Aroma and Flavor Profiles: Fermented vs. Non-Fermented Products

Aroma is related to olfactory sensation, while flavor is an intricate blend of the trigeminal, gustatory, and olfactory senses experienced while tasting. The word clouds representing the sensory descriptors employed in various scientific publications (Figure 2) characterize the aroma (left) and flavor (right) of dry-cured meat products. The definitions used for several aroma (orthonasal) descriptors are listed in Table S1. Most descriptors used in Figure 2 were acquired using the sensory approach of Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA), whereas others were acquired using the Flash Profile method [25] and Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) technique [72]. The plots show that rancid and cured ham are the main sensory descriptors in dry-cured ham (Figure 2A,B), while cured and rancid are especially indicative in dry-cured loins (Figure 2C,D) together with descriptors related to the addition of spices, such as spicy and herbal [73]. In contrast, fermented sausages, like salami from Italy and salchichón from Spain, have a very complex flavor and aroma (Figure 2E,F). The primary sensory descriptors used are rancid, sour, and black pepper, whilst rancid, acid, and mold define the aroma of fermented sausages. The application of starter cultures (LAB and CN-Stp) enhances the aroma profile and complexity of dry-cured fermented sausages. Specially, LAB inoculation allows the control of acidification, which slows down the synthesis of cured aroma compounds such as methyl ketones (2-pentanone, 2-hexanone, and 2-heptanone) [74].

4. Screening of Savory and Toasted Odors by Olfactometric Detection

Olfactometry and GC-sniffing have been used to identify the odor and sensory properties of volatile compounds in many natural products [101]. Previous studies have revealed that choosing a suitable sample preparation method (DHS: dynamic headspace; P&T: purge and trap; SPME: solid-phase micro-extraction; HSSE: headspace sorptive extraction) is very important for aroma screening [102]. Studies have also shown that not all volatile compounds are important for the aroma profile, but the determination of a volatile odor activity value (OAV) can provide insight into the beneficence of each compound to the overall odor. In the case of food, the ratio of the volatile compound’s content divided by its odor threshold in an appropriate matrix (water, oil, or air) is used as the OAV [101]. Regarding sample preparation techniques, the SPME method has been frequently employed in volatile compounds’ analysis. However, just a tiny percentage of the volatiles found in meat products made from dry-curing can be considered odor-active because their sensory properties depend on their concentration and interaction with the matrix composition [103].
The odor wheels in Figure 3 and Figure 4 are used to represent savory and toasted odor-active compounds, and their sensory descriptions were reported using Olfactometric Detection in non-fermented and fermented dry-cured meat products, respectively. The bibliographic references employed for these figures are indicated in the figure legends. The data are based on the number of times that the different compounds were reported in previous scientific studies. The compounds found are essentially similar in both wheels except for the presence of methionol, dimethyl sulfide (DMS), and 2-methyl-3-(methylthio)furan (MMTF) in non-fermented products, while several pyrazines (2-methylpyrazine (2-MP), 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine (2,3-D-5-MP), and 2-ethyl-3,5-dimethylpyrazine (2-E-3,5-DMP)) were found in fermented meat products. In most cases, a clear descriptor defined the aroma profile of the savory compounds in both fermented and non-fermented products. One of the compounds is methional, where the aroma was mainly (but not only) described as cooked potato. The same happened in the case of methanethiol (MT) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), where the aroma was associated with rotten notes and cooked cabbage, respectively, as shown in both wheels. Other important savory notes including meaty and nutty in non-fermented meat products were related to the presence of 2-methyl-3-furanthiol (MFT) and MMTF, whereas in fermented products, meaty notes were reported in the presence of methyl 2-methyl-3-furyl disulfide (MMFDS).
In the case of toasted aroma compounds, only 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (2AP) was associated with toasted, roasted, and popcorn-like notes in both fermented and non-fermented products. Pyrazine compounds in non-fermented meat products mainly contributed to toasted notes, while in fermented products, different odor descriptors like earthy, mashed potatoes, etc., were reported. These differences in aroma notes described by Olfactometric Detection may be related to the content of various volatile compounds [104] and pyrazines, which have a synergistic impact on aroma perception [105]. Furthermore, recent studies have revealed the saltiness-enhancement properties of pyrazines and sulfur compounds present in cooked Jinhua dry-cured ham and their effect on flavor perception [106].
Foods 14 00881 g003
Figure 3. An odor wheel describing the aroma of non-fermented dry-cured meat products, including the main savory and toasted identified compounds. Data are based on the number of times a compound was reported [66,78,81,88,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116]. Abbreviations of compounds: DMTS: dimethyl trisufide; APle: 2-acetylpyrrole; 2A2T: 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline; 2,6-DMP: 2,6-dimethylpyrazine; 2,3,5-TMP: 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine; TMP: tetramethy-lpyrazine.
Figure 3. An odor wheel describing the aroma of non-fermented dry-cured meat products, including the main savory and toasted identified compounds. Data are based on the number of times a compound was reported [66,78,81,88,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116]. Abbreviations of compounds: DMTS: dimethyl trisufide; APle: 2-acetylpyrrole; 2A2T: 2-acetyl-2-thiazoline; 2,6-DMP: 2,6-dimethylpyrazine; 2,3,5-TMP: 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine; TMP: tetramethy-lpyrazine.
Foods 14 00881 g003
Foods 14 00881 g004
Figure 4. An odor wheel describing the aroma of fermented dry-cured meat products, including the main savory and toasted identified compounds. Data are based on the number of times a compound was reported [70,113,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132]. Abbreviations of compounds: 2,5-DMP: 2,5-dimethylpyrazine.
Figure 4. An odor wheel describing the aroma of fermented dry-cured meat products, including the main savory and toasted identified compounds. Data are based on the number of times a compound was reported [70,113,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132]. Abbreviations of compounds: 2,5-DMP: 2,5-dimethylpyrazine.
Foods 14 00881 g004

5. Mechanisms of Savory and Toasted Aroma Compound Formation

Clarifying the source and formation of toasted and savory odors in fermented dry-cured products is essential to understanding the impact of raw materials, ingredients, and processing. In cooked meat, meaty and sulfurous aromas are the primary source of savory odors [133]. These aromas originate from ribose and sulfur-containing amino acids through the Maillard reaction [134]. Other reactions, like thiamine degradation, also favor the formation of savory aromas in cooked meat, whereas toasted odors are mainly generated through a cooking process that produces toasted, roasted, and cooked meat odors. These odors are primarily formed by Maillard reactions involving reducing sugars and amino acids and also nitrogen compounds [135].
In dry-cured meat products, the main chemical structures of compounds related to savory (Figure 5) and toasted aromas (Figure 6) are the result of different chemical and biochemical reactions. As previously reported, the savory aromas in fermented and non-fermented meat products are attributable to the presence of sulfur compounds (Figure 3 and Figure 4), which have low odor thresholds. In the case of toasted aromas, their presence is related to nitrogen heterocyclic compounds [66].
The generation of savory aromas in dry-cured meat products is a result of several reactions. One of the main reactions may be the breakdown of methionine mediated by the Strecker reaction (Figure 7), which produces methional. Methional eventually breaks down into MT, which quickly oxidizes to DMDS. This compound is then transformed, becoming DMTS and DMS. Similarly, the degradation of thiamine can produce MFT (Figure 8). Although these reactions have been studied at high temperatures, as occur in cooked meat products, methionine degradation and methional generation have also been observed under mild-temperature conditions in a meat model simulating dry-fermented sausage [136], thus demonstrating that the generation of savory aromas can also occur in curing conditions.
The generation of toasted aromas may be related to the presence of proline and ornithine, which have been identified as amino acids reacting with 2-oxopropanal, the Maillard reaction’s intermediate, to produce 2AP. The latter compound has been found to contribute to toasted aromas (Figure 9) in several processed foods, such as toasted wheat bread and cooked sweet corn [138]. However, 2AP is a very unstable compound, and at room temperature, it can be oxidized to form APle [139]. In dry-cured meat products, processing is performed at mild temperatures which do not allow the formation of 2AP from proline and ornithine through the Maillard reaction [140]. Nevertheless, the presence of yeasts and molds may mediate biochemical processes that could modulate the content of 2AP in dry-cured meat products [141].
In contrast with meat products submitted to thermal treatment [135], the mild environmental conditions applied in dry-cured processing are the limiting factor for savory and toasted odor compound formation. Therefore, the contribution of biochemical reactions mediated by autochthonous or inoculated microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and molds) to generate the savory and toasted aromas in fermented dry-cured meat products acquires special relevance. The importance of microbial activity and its impact on the generation of savory and toasted compounds has been previously demonstrated [1]. The species Staphylococcus xylosus [143] generates sulfur DMDS and methional from methionine and nitrogen compounds; moreover, 2,5-DMP from threonine in a chemically defined medium [144]. The potential of Debaryomyces hansenii in the savory and toasted aroma compound formation in dry-cured meat products has also been investigated intensively. In the production of dry-cured meat products, D. hansenii is the most prevalent and dominating yeast throughout the stages of fermentation and maturation [70,145,146,147]. However, not all D. hansenii strains isolated from fermented dry sausages have the same potential to produce volatile sulfur compounds (methionol, dimethyl sulfide, etc.) from sulfur-containing amino acids [148]. Previous studies have shown the importance of the selection criteria of D. hansenii strains with the ability to generate savory and toasted aromas [149]. The inoculation of D. hansenii in dry-cured hams and loins (Table S2) has been associated with the formation of savory compounds such as methional, MT, and DMDS. Meanwhile, in dry-fermented sausage, additional compounds of MFT, MMFDS, 2AP, 2A2T, and 2,6-DMP can also be generated. Regarding toasted odor compounds, 2,5-DMP, 2-E-3,5-DMP, and TMP have been found in dry-cured hams and loins, while 2AP, 2A2T, and 2,6-DMP have been found only in fermented sausages.
A study on Mediterranean sausages showed the generation of 2AP related to surface isolated Penicillium nalgiovense [150]. Moreover, 2AP has been found in Iberian ham [107], Jinhua ham [66,112], American country ham [115], and Chinese dry-fermented sausages [61]. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to demonstrate mold’s contribution to 2AP formation.

6. Discussion and Implications

Different concentrations of aroma-active chemicals give distinct flavors and aromas to fermented and non-fermented dry-cured meat [151]. The cured odor is most likely produced by a quantitative balance of savory and toasted odors because a single substance has not been found to be accountable for the distinct odor of dry-cured meat products [1]. The amount of previous research involving the accurate quantification of savory and toasted aromas is not very significant (Table 3). Moreover, the quantification of savory and toasted aroma compounds in meat products can be difficult, due to the low concentration of these substances and the complexity of the meat matrix [141]. In fermented products (sausages), several studies have reported the quantification of savory and toasted aroma compounds. However, only one study has reported compound quantification results in non-fermented products like dry-cured loins. Nevertheless, in all cases, the quantities reported for the aroma compounds were extremely low, in the range of µg/kg, except for methional and DMDS. Furthermore, in addition to the quantitation process, the procedures employed for volatiles’ extraction must be taken into account for comparisons between studies [152]. In fermented products, several studies have revealed the quantification of savory and toasted odors after extraction using the technique of solid-phase micro-extraction (SPME), except for two studies that used solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE) [119,132]. In the latter two studies, a number of compounds and low amounts of these compounds were reported. Moreover, high variability was observed in the compounds detected and quantities reported. However, these variations could be attributed to differences in meat product processing, the extraction techniques used to enrich the target compounds [120], and the reactivity of sulfur compounds [153]. Nevertheless, the quantification of savory and toasted flavor compounds is very important to studying their formation mechanism and their influence on the flavor of meat products; therefore, further research should concentrate on the quantification of these compounds in non-fermented dry-cured meat products.
The study of the reaction mechanism affecting the concentrations of savory and toasted volatile compounds in dry-cured meat products can improve organoleptic characteristics. In addition, this knowledge can be employed to control the drying process without losing savory and toasted aromas. Finally, long drying and ripening times can be optimized to increase the sustainability of the production process.

7. Conclusions and Future Directions

In summary, the presence of chemicals that produce savory (meaty) and toasted odors in meat products may create an olfactory equilibrium that leads to the distinctive “cured odor”, as no one compound is responsible for the unique odor of “dry-cured” meat. Depending on the chemical and biological events during the process, multiple strategies may be used to generate these savory and toasted flavor components. Consequently, investigating the mechanism that involves producing them in various dry-cured meat products—both fermented and non-fermented—helps to comprehend the influence of their aroma on these meat products. Knowledge of the mechanism of aroma formation can be used to develop savory (meaty) and toasted meat products and flavorings.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods14050881/s1. Table S1: Aroma lexicon of dry-cured meat products [72,75,83,84,89,96,97]; Table S2: Savory and toasted aroma compounds detected in dry-cured meat products inoculated with yeast D. hansenii [70,82,129,145,147,156,157].

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, L.L.; writing—review and editing, C.B. and M.F.; funding acquisition, M.F. and C.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This review is supported by MCIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 (Grants PID2021-122581OB-100 and to IATA-CSIC as Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa CEX2021-001189-S) from Spain and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Frequency of volatiles detected by SPME (CAR/PDMS), where (A,C,E) are grouped according to probable origin and (B,D,F) according to chemical composition, respectively, of dry-cured ham [13,67], dry-cured loins [68,69], and dry-fermented sausages [70,71].
Figure 1. Frequency of volatiles detected by SPME (CAR/PDMS), where (A,C,E) are grouped according to probable origin and (B,D,F) according to chemical composition, respectively, of dry-cured ham [13,67], dry-cured loins [68,69], and dry-fermented sausages [70,71].
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Figure 2. Word clouds of sensory descriptors used to describe the aroma (A,C,E) and flavor (B,D,F) of dry-cured ham (A,B) [75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89], dry-cured loins (C,D) [17,21,25,72,73,90,91,92,93,94], and dry-fermented sausages (E,F) [41,49,50,51,57,95,96,97,98,99,100], respectively.
Figure 2. Word clouds of sensory descriptors used to describe the aroma (A,C,E) and flavor (B,D,F) of dry-cured ham (A,B) [75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89], dry-cured loins (C,D) [17,21,25,72,73,90,91,92,93,94], and dry-fermented sausages (E,F) [41,49,50,51,57,95,96,97,98,99,100], respectively.
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Figure 5. Chemical structure of savory aroma compounds in dry-cured meat products.
Figure 5. Chemical structure of savory aroma compounds in dry-cured meat products.
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Figure 6. Chemical structure of toasted aroma compounds in dry-cured meat products.
Figure 6. Chemical structure of toasted aroma compounds in dry-cured meat products.
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Figure 7. Chemical reactions that contribute the generation of savory aromas from methionine. Adapted from [135] with the publisher’s permission.
Figure 7. Chemical reactions that contribute the generation of savory aromas from methionine. Adapted from [135] with the publisher’s permission.
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Figure 8. Chemical reactions involved in the generation of savory aromas from thiamine. Reprinted from [137] with the publisher’s permission (MDPI under the terms of the CC BY license).
Figure 8. Chemical reactions involved in the generation of savory aromas from thiamine. Reprinted from [137] with the publisher’s permission (MDPI under the terms of the CC BY license).
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Figure 9. Chemical reactions involved in the generation of 2AP and APle from the reaction of proline and ornithine with 2-oxopropanal. Adapted from [142] with the publisher’s permission.
Figure 9. Chemical reactions involved in the generation of 2AP and APle from the reaction of proline and ornithine with 2-oxopropanal. Adapted from [142] with the publisher’s permission.
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Table 3. Content (µg/kg) of savory and toasted volatile compounds reported in dry-cured meat products.
Table 3. Content (µg/kg) of savory and toasted volatile compounds reported in dry-cured meat products.
CompoundsLoin
[141]		Sausage
[119]		Sausage [119]Sausage [141] cSausage
[154]		Sausage
[155] c		Sausage [132]Sausage [119]
SPME (CAR/PDMS) bSPME (DVB/CAR/PDMS)SPME (CAR/PDMS)SPME (CAR/PDMS)SPME (CAR/PDMS)SPME (CAR/PDMS)SAFESAFE
Methional12,798.52.13.219.2 529.9 67.2
Methionol20.6 5.5
MT a0.4 0.14147.9
DMS2.1 0.5
DMDS0.002 0.321730.80.5
DMTS3.9 0.07104.12.5
MFT0.005 0.11 0.30.8
MMTF 0 0.2
MMFDS 0.27 0.1
2AP66.9 2.714
APle0.5 1.4
2AT 0.2
2A2T 0.7
2-E-3,5-DMP 0.6
2,3,5-TMP 2.42.8
TMP 0.30.2
a Compound names are abbreviated as described in Figure 5 and Figure 6 except 2AT (2-acetylthiazole). b Volatile extraction method used for analysis of compounds: SPME (solid-phase micro-extraction), SAFE (solvent-assisted flavor evaporation). c Data are expressed in dry matter.
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Li, L.; Belloch, C.; Flores, M. The Aroma of Non-Fermented and Fermented Dry-Cured Meat Products: Savory and Toasted Odors. Foods 2025, 14, 881. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050881

AMA Style

Li L, Belloch C, Flores M. The Aroma of Non-Fermented and Fermented Dry-Cured Meat Products: Savory and Toasted Odors. Foods. 2025; 14(5):881. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050881

Chicago/Turabian Style

Li, Lei, Carmela Belloch, and Mónica Flores. 2025. "The Aroma of Non-Fermented and Fermented Dry-Cured Meat Products: Savory and Toasted Odors" Foods 14, no. 5: 881. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050881

APA Style

Li, L., Belloch, C., & Flores, M. (2025). The Aroma of Non-Fermented and Fermented Dry-Cured Meat Products: Savory and Toasted Odors. Foods, 14(5), 881. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14050881

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